lodhi dynasty

Lodhi Dynasty


Bahlol Lodhi was the founder of Lodhi dynasty. He ruled for 39 years.

His links were with a famous Afghan clan known as Shahurbel.He

established his suzerainty by defeating and capturing the jagirdar of

Mewat, Sambha, Koel, Khari, Bhogaon, Etawah and Gwalior.He

annexed the Jaunpur kingdom in his empire. In the last years of his

life he invaded Gwalior and obtained 80 lakh tankas from the ruler. He

was succeeded by his son Nizam Shah who ascended the throne with

the title of Sikandar Shah.

He was ablest of three Lodhi rulers. In 1504 he established the city of

Agra. He conquered south Bihar in 1494-95 and concluded a treaty of

friendship with Alauddin Husain Shah the ruler of Bengal. He

introduced the measurement of land and started a measurement

known as Sikandar Gaz.He tried to propagate Islam and crush

Hinduism. He died at Agra in 1517.The last Lodhi ruler was Ibrahim

22/26 I couldn't wait for success, so I went ahead without it.

Lodhi.In 1526 Ibrahim Lodhi fought with Babur the battle of Panipat.In

this fierce battle Ibrahim Lodhi was defeated. The Sultanate came to

an end and a new power Mughals came to rule India.

Rulers of the Lodhi Dynasty

Rulers of the Lodhi Dynasty AD

1. Bahlol Lodhi 1451-1489

2. Sikander Lodhi 1489-1517

3. Ibrahim Lodhi 1517-1526

Administration of the Sultanate

The government established by the Turks was a compromise between

Islamic political ideas and institutions on the one hand and the existing

Rajput system of government on the other. Consequently many

elements of the Rajput political system with or without changes

became part and parcel of the Turkish administration in India. Most of

the Sultans kept up the pretence of regarding the caliph as the legal

sovereign while they themselves were the caliph's representatives.

Most of them included the name of the caliph in the Khutba and the

Sikka and adopted titles indicative of their subordination to the caliph.

Three rulers emphasised their own importance.Balban used to say that

after the Prophet the most important office was that of the sovereign

and called himself the Shadow of God.Muhmmad bin Tughlaq assumed

this style during the early years of his reign and although Balban had

retained the name of the caliph in the Khutba and Sikka, he made no

mention of caliph anywhere. Despite all this neither of them had the

power to call himself the caliph. The only person who had done this

was Qutubuddin Mubarak Khalji.Only three Sultans sought and secured

a mansur or letter of investiture from the caliph.The first among them

was Iltutmish.Next Muhmmad bin Tughlaq tried to pacify the ulema by

securing an investiture from the Abbasid Caliph in Egypt.

After him Firoz also sought and secured it twice. According to Islamic

ideals essential attributes of a sovereign required that he should be a

male adult suffering from no physical disability, a freeborn Muslim

having faith in Islam and acquainted with its doctrines and he should

23/26 I couldn't wait for success, so I went ahead without it.

be elected by the people. There were several violations of the

prescribed criteria as Raziya was raised to throne despite her being a

woman. Minority proved no bar in the case of Mohammad bin

Tughluq.Alauddin Khalji admitted his ignorance of the Sharia but

nobody questioned him.In the framing of new rules and regulations

the authority of the Sultan was circumscribed and every ruler could

not govern the kingdom in complete disregard of the advice of the

ulema or theologians as Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq had

been able to do. The power of the nobility also blunted their authority

to some extent. When there was a weak ruler on the throne the nobles

and the ulema particularly dominated him but during the reign of

Balban, Alauddin Khalji and Muhammad Tughluq these checks proved

ineffective. The sultans were not powerful enough to rule the land in

complete disregard of the sentiments of the Hindus.

The Sultan dominated the central government as he was the legal

head of the state and acted as the chief executive and the highest

court of appeal. The Sultan was assisted by number of ministers. The

slave dynasty sultans constituted four ministers at the top level these

were held by Wazir,Ariz I mamalik,the diwan -i-insha and the diwan-irisalat.

After sometime an extraordinary officer of the state styled as

naib-ul-mulk or malik naib the regent came into existence. When the

sultanate was well established two more departmental heads were

raised to the status of central ministers sadr-us-sadur and the diwan-iqaza.

The commander of the royal army next after the sultan, the

crown prince and above mentioned ministers constituted the nucleus

of the council of advisers called majilis-i-am or majilis-i-khawat which

comprised the most trusted and the highest officers of the state. The

wazir also styled as vakil was the prime minister and his department

was called the diwan-i-wizarat.He was head of the finance dept and

usually held overall charge of the entire administrative set up. The

head of the army establishment or the ministry of defence was the

diwan -i-arz.He was responsible for the organization and maintenance

of the royal army and exercised disciplinary control over it. The

department of correspondence and records of the royal court was

called diwan-i-insha; it was held under the charge of central minister

known as dabir-i-mamlik, dabir-i-khas or amir munshi.The diwan-irisalat

constituted the fourth pillar of the imperial administration of the

sultanate. Under slave dynasty the head of the dept was sadr-us-sadur

who was primarily a minister for ecclesiastical affairs. During the time

of Alauddin Khalji diwan-i-risalat dept was taken out of the hand of the

sadr and renamed diwan-i-riyasat.Its primary function was to

implement the economic regulations issued by the sultan and control

the markets and prices.Barid-i-mamalik ;vakil -i-dar,amir-i-

24/26 I couldn't wait for success, so I went ahead without it.

barbak,amir-i-hajib,amir-i-majlis,amir-i-shikar,kotwal etc were other

important officials of the time.

Provincial Government

The provincial government of the sultanate was not well developed.

The provincial governors of the region were usually called walis or

muqtas.The provincial government was an exact replica of the central

government. In some provinces the sultan appointed an imperial

officer called sahib-i-diwan for controlling the provincial revenues and

he exercised a sort of check on the powers and activities of the

governor. The provinces were further divided into shiqs or districts

which were governed by shiqdars.Each shiq comprised a few parganas

which was an aggregate of villages. At the lowest ladder were the

villages which were governed by their local panchayats.

Judicial System

The sultans implemented shariat or the Islamic law of crime and

punishment the main sources of which were the Quran, the Hadis and

Ijma.The ecclesiastical cases were separated from the criminal and

civil suits. The durbar of the sultan constituted the highest civil and

criminal court of justice which took original as well as appellate cases.

Below the sultan there was the court of qazi-i-quzat or the chief justice

of the empire.Muhtasib the censor of public morals acted as police cum

judge in the observance of the canon law by the Muslims. The village

panchayats enjoyed the sanction of the state to administer justice

according to the local tradition, customs and the personal law of the

populace. The penal code was severe, physical torture and capital

punishment constituted an essential part of it.

Military organization

The sultanate was military dictatorship; it owed its genesis to the

military victory of the Turks over the Indian rulers in the 12th and

25/26 I couldn't wait for success, so I went ahead without it.

13th centuries and its strength and stability depended primarily on its

strong and efficient army. The army organization of the sultans was

based on feudal principles which carried all the inherent defects of the

system with it.

26/26 I couldn't wait for success, so I went ahead without it.

Geographical knowledge of the vedic

period.

The geographical evidence as to be found in the hymns of Vedas thros

some light on the course of Indo-Aryan migration and the origin of

Hinduism. Whether the Indo-Aryans came from Central Asia or not

depends largely on the interpretation of the geographical allusions in

the Rig and Yajur Vedas. The hymns in praise of rivers in the 10th

blcok are interesting. The author while singing the greatness of the

Sindhu enumerates at least 19 rivers including the Ganges. The fifth

Stanza gives a list of 10 streams, small and great-Ganges, Yamuna,

Saraswati, Satluj, Ravi, Chenab, Jhelum, Maruwardwan (in J&K),

Sushoma (Rowalpindi District) and probably Kanshi in the same

district. This system of rivers did not remain the Saraswati. The

existing delta of the Indus has been formed since the time of

Alexander the Great.

The Vedic hymns reveal the initial Aryan settlements in India : western

tributaries of the Indus, the Gomti (modern Gomal) the Krumu

(modern Kurram) and the Kubha (modern Kabul). The one river

mentioned in the North of Kabul is Suvastu (modern swat).

But the main focus of the Rig Vedic settlements was in the Punjab and

the Delhi region. When the Rig-Vedic hymns were compiled the focus

of Aryan settlement was the region between the Yamuna and the

Sutlaj, south of modern Ambala and laong the upper course of river

Saraswati. The most frequently mentioned rivers are the Sindhu

(Indus), the Sarasvati (modern Sarsuti), the Drishadvati (modern

Chitang), and the five streams of the Punjab.

Regarding the other geographical features, the Vedic poets knew the

Himalayas but not the land south of Yamuna, since they did not

mention the Vindhayas, In the east also the Aryans did not expand

beyond Yamuna; for the river Ganga is mentioned only once in one

late hymn.

And possibly, the Aryans had no knowledge of the oceans since the

word 'samudra' in the Vedic period meant a pool of water. But the

later Vedic knowledge shows that the Aryans knew the two seas, the

Himalayas and the Vindhyan mountainas and generally the entire

Indo-Gangetic plain.

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 1 of 56

The Aryans used various kinds of pottery and the sites where the

painted grey were are found, confirm the Aryan settlements. The Vedic

texts show that the Aryans expanded from the Punjab over the whole

of western Uttar Pradesh covered by the Ganga-Yamuna Doab. The

Bharatas and Purus known as Kuru people first lived between

Sarasvati and Drishadvati just on the fringe of the Doab. Soon the

Kurus occupied Delhi and the Upper portion of the doab, that is the

area called Kurukshetra, After this event, the Kurus joined with the

people called Panchalas who occupied the middle portion of the Doab

or the moder districts of bareilly Dadaun and Farrukabad. It was the

Kuru-Panchalas who had set up their capital at Hastinapur situated in

the district of Meerut. Later the Kauravas and the Pandavas belonging

to the same Kuru clan fougth out a battle which led to the extinction of

the Kuru clan.

And by 600 B.C. the Aryans spread from the Doab further east to

Kosala in Eastern U.P. and Vedeha in north Bihar. The former town is

associated with the story of Ramchandra, but it is not mentioned in

Vedic literature.

Indus And Vedic Civilisation

There is muc to be contrasted between the cultures of the Harappans

and the Aryans. There are indeed a few points of similarities, but they

are not of any significance. Why the points of contrast are more is

primarily because of geographic location, economic activity and the

religious practices followed by both the cultures. Far more important is

the fact that the Aryans, with a plasticity of mind, made life vibrant;

whereas, the Indus life looks more like stylized puppet show.

The plasticity of the Aryan mind was shown in the language as well as

the way in which they adapted agricultural and settled life. The seals

of the Indus Valley show that the pictographs remained statis,

whereas, the Aryan language in the Rig Veda at places rises to musical

levels. The success with which the Aryan writings were composed

reveals the ability of the Aryan mind to grasp the mulitiple dimensions

of human life. And language which exhibits immense potentialities in

its vocabulary reveals that the community is full of potentialities. On

the other hand, out of nearly 400 characters known to the Harappans

only a few were repeated time and again.

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 2 of 56

The other manifestation of Aryan civilization, that is, its capacity to

change and adapt itself, has given a continuity to Indian Civilization

despite the absence of mighty empires. On the other hand, the Indus

Valley people reached a blind alley and the never learnt anything from

other civilizations like the Sumerian. Adaptability or ability to respond

to challenges is the hallmark of any youthful civilization. The Indus

civilization reached its senilithy by 2000 B.C. whereas the Aryan

Civilization was full with creative dynamism.

Archaeology is the only source of our knowledge of the Harappan

civilization, but information concerning the Vedic Aryans depends

almost entirely on literary texts, which were handed down by the oral

tradition. It is clear from the material remains that the Harappan

civilization was in certain respects superior to that of the Aryans. In

Particular it was a city civilization of a highly developed type, while by

contrast city life was unfamiliar to the Aryans. The superiority of the

Aryans lay in the military field. In which their use of the light horse

chariot played a prominent part, or in literary exuberation.

Harappans were peace loving city-dwellers and good planners as is

evident by grid pattern towns, elaborate drainage system, street

lights, kelp-burnt brick houses, fortifications, granaries, baths and

wells. The early Aryans were not city builders. Their way of life,

nomad-pastoralists as theywere, was dominated by war like stockbreeding

(they practiced a little agriculture) and migrations. City

buildings etc. as a large-scale socio-economic activities is only much

later mentioned in the later Vedic texts, epics and the Puranas.

The Harrapa culture is located in the Indus Valley and western India

and its urbanization is based on a chalcolithic system with and absence

of iron. Later Vedic society centering on the Ganges Valley from which

the Harappan culture is largely absent owes its gradual urbanization to

iron technology, the widespread domestication of the horse and the

extension and intensification of plough agriculture. (Iron, horse and

plough being nearly absent - some evidence in later Harappan sites).

The expansion and budding off of the Harappan system in the east as

far as Alamgirpur (U.P.) and to the neighbouring areas was neither

'colonisation' nor was it 'political expansion' of any from, it was rather

the expansion in terms of the permeations of the socio-economic and

socio-cultural systems of Harappan society whereas, the Aryan

advance towards eastern region - the Doab of the Ganges and Jamuna

- was no doubt facilitated by their horse chariots and effective

weapons and can be viewed as 'colonisation' or 'political expansion'

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 3 of 56

though not all the Aryan culture contacts and expansion need have

been of a violent kind.

The focal centers of the Harappan culture remained for a long time the

twin cities of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro and it is from these centers

that Harappan culture budded off, whereas the focus of attention of

the Rig Veda was the Punjab and in the later Vedic period it shifted to

the Doab of the Ganges and Jamuna rivers. The Punjab seems

gradually to fade into the background and was regarded even with

disapproval.

The Harappan society had a very complex social stratification, division

of labour and multiplicity of crafts and industries, urbanism was its

marked feature with Harappans enjoying a settled and sedentary life,

and in this society the priest and the merchant played dominant roles

perhaps constituting a 'ruling' elite. On the other hand, in the early

period the Aryans were organized into a social organization which may

be described as 'tribal' or rural' one with a minimal of division of labour

and sedentariness. It was sed fully with more pronounced and

increased division of labour when specialized trades and crafts

appeared. But in this society it was not the priests and the merchants

(Vaishyas) but the Priests and the Kshtriya who constituted the rule in

elite (though with a tendency to rivalry).

In the Harappan society the Priestly class was of great importance as

the central authority. Though there is little evidence in the Rig Veda of

any special importance of the priests, however in later Vedic society,

the priests as a class assumed a form of institutional authority. The

institutions of slavery and prostitution were common to both the

societies.

The entire Harappan civilization was the product of an available food

surplus (wheat and barley), a fairly high level of craft industry, a script

and most important of active commercial intercourse by which it was

able to obtain its different and varied material from places far and near

both in India (the sub-continent outside the Harappan sphere was not

terra-incognita) and outside (i.e. Sumerian towns, Baluchistan and

Central Asia). Both northern and southern India was connected in

Harappan period by ties of brisk trade. But the early Aryans did not

fully emerged out from the food-gathering and nomadic pastoral

stage. They hated the panis, i.e. those who indulged in trade. Though

by the end of the Vedic age trade contracts and commercial intercourse

did not reach the Harappan level. It was only by the end of the

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 4 of 56

Vedic period that the Aryans had some familiarity with the subcontinent.

The religion of the Harappan differed widely from that of the Vedic

people. The Harappan practiced the cults of Sakti (mother Goddess)

and Pasupati (Proto-Shiva) of animal-tree and stone worship and of

Phallus and Yoni, i.e. fertility cult. The early Aryans condemned many

of these cults. Harappans worshiped Mother Goddess but the Female

deities played a minor part in Vedic religion though the Aryans

provided spouses to their gods by later Vedic times. But the fear of the

Phallus worship was replaced in the Yajur veda by its recognition as an

official ritual. Siva also gained increased importance in the later Vedas.

The Aryans anthropomorphized most of the forces of nature and

prayed to them as Indra, Varuna, Agni, Mitra, Rudra, Soma, Surya,

and Asvins. The fire of sacrificial cult was common to both. Vedic

Aryans worshipped the cow while the Harappans reserved their

veneration for bulls. The Harappans were iconic and the Aryans

aniconic. Ascetic practices were known to both.

That the Harappan had a ruling authority or elite and / or an

administrative organization cannot be doubted. Almost uniform

planning of the cities and presence of sanitary system, standard

weights and measures, assembly halls, huge granaries and citadels

point to the existence of an authority, but what it was like as the later

Vedic period the Aryan tribes had consolidated in little kingdoms with

capitals and a sedimentary administrative system with important

functionaries the Purohit and the twelve ratrins playing dominant role

in support of the monarchy, the prevalent form of government.

The food habits of the Harappans were almost identical with those of

the later Aryans if not early Aryans. The Harappans unlike the Aryans,

preferred indoor games of outdoor amusements (chariot racing and

hunting) though dice was popular past time with both. Playing music,

singing and dancing were common to both. But about the musical

instrument of the Harappan little is known or not known while the

Aryans had the drum, lute and flute with cymbals and the harp as later

additions. The Harappans buried their dead - the Aryans largely

created their dead. The Harappans used a script, which remains

undeciphered to date in spite of many claims for its deco din, where as

references to writing in Vedic society came at a much later stage.

In art the Harappans made considerable progress. Their works of art

add tour comprehension of their culture. In fact, the earliest artistic

traditions belong to them. In sculpture (beareded man from Mohenjo-

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 5 of 56

daro and two sand stone statuettes from Harappa), though a very few

sculptures survive, in metal (bronze dancing girl) and ivory works, in

terracotta's (small images and figures of animals, birds or human or

animal and inscription a 9 Harappan script on them), and in their

pottery (painted red and black, at times glazed), the Harappan show

vigor, variety and ingenuity. On the other hand, Rig Vedic age is

devoid of any tangible proof of Aryan achievements in these directions.

In fact the Rig Veda says nothing of writing, art and architecture. The

art of ceramics made Harappan, the Vedic pottery was a simple one.

The Harappans lacked that plasticity and dynamism of mind which is

very essential for further growth and survival and they refused to learn

from others, on the other hand, the Aryans possessing what the

Harappans lacked, were youthful enough to be receptive, adaptive and

assimilative, transforming themselves into a comprehensive civilization

which in due course of time became essentially composite in character.

In the end we have to say that apart from the minor causative factors

causing difference like the close mindedness of the Harappans and

contrasted to the Plasticity of the Aryan mind, formalized and

ritualized religion of the Harappans as contrasted to the animals and

the metaphysical traits of the Aryans and the geographical locale were

entirely different. The differences in socio-economic matrices between

the two civilizations primarily account for the contrast between the

two.

decline of maurya

DECLINE OF THE MAURYAS


The decline of the Maurya Dynasty was rather rapid after the death of

Ashoka/Asoka. One obvious reason for it was the succession of weak

kings. Another immediate cause was the partition of the Empire into

two. Had not the partition taken place, the Greek invasions could have

been held back giving a chance to the Mauryas to re-establish some

degree of their previous power.

Regarding the decline much has been written. Haraprasad Sastri

contends that the revolt by Pushyamitra was the result of brahminical

reaction against the pro-Buddhist policies of Ashoka and pro-Jaina

policies of his successors. Basing themselves on this thesis, some

maintain the view that brahminical reaction was responsible for the

decline because of the following reasons.

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 6 of 56

• (a) Prohibitino of the slaughter of animals displeased the

Brahmins as animal sacrifices were esteemed by them.

• (b) The book Divyavadana refers to the persecution of Buddhists

by Pushyamitra Sunga.

• (c) Asoka's claim that he exposed the Budheveas (brahmins) as

false gods shows that Ashoka was not well disposed towards

Brahmins.

• (d) The capture of power by Pushyamitra Sunga shows the

triumph of Brahmins.

All these four points can be easily refuted. Asoka's compassion

towards animals was not an overnight decision. Repulsion of animal

sacrifices grew over a long period of time. Even Brahmins gave it up

by the book Divyavadana, cannot be relied upon since it was during

the time of Pushyamitra Sunga that the Sanchi and Barhut stupas

were completed. Probably the impression of the persecution of

Buddhism was created by Menander's invasion who was a Budhhist.

Thridly, the word 'budheva' is misinterpreted because this word is to

be taken in the context of some other phrase. Viewed like this, this

word has nothing to do with brahminism. Fourthly, the victory of

Pushyamitra Sunga clearly shows that the last of the Mauryas was an

incompetent ruler since he was overthrown in the very presence of his

army, and this had nothing to do with brahminical reaction against

Asoka's patronage of Budhism. Moreover, the very fact that a Brahmin

was the commander in chief of the Mauryan ruler proves that the

Mauryas and the Brahmins were on good terms.

After all, the distinction between Hinduism and Buddhism in India was

purely sectarian and never more than the difference between saivism

and vaishnavism. The exclusiveness of religious doctrines is a Semitic

conception, which was unknown to India for a long time. Buddha

himself was looked upon in his lifetime and afterwards as a Hindu saint

and avatar and his followers were but another sect in the great Aryan

tradition. Ashoka was a Buddhist in the same way as Harsha was a

Budhist, or Kumarapala was a Jain. But in the view of the people of the

day he was a Hindu monarch following one of the recognized sects. His

own inscriptions bear ample withness to the fact. While his doctrines

follow themiddle path, his gifts are to the brahmibns, sramansa

(Buddhist priests) and others equally. His own name of adoption is

Devanam Priya, the beloved of the gods. Which gods? Surely the gods

of the Aryan religion. Buddhism had no gods of its own. The idea that

Ashoka was a kind of Buddhist Constantine declearing himself against

paganism is a complete misreading of India conditions. Asoka was a

kind or Buddhist Constantine declearing himself against paganism is a

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 7 of 56

complete misreading of India conditions. Asoka was essentially a

Hindu, as indeed was the founder of the sect to which he belonged.

Raychaudhury too rebuts the arguments of Sastri. The empire had

shrunk considerably and there was no revolution. Killing the Mauryan

King while he was reviewing the army points to a palace coup detat

not a revolution. The organization were ready to accept any one who

could promise a more efficient organisation. Also if Pushyamitra was

really a representative of brahminical reaction he neighbouting kings

would have definitely given him assistance.

The argument that the empire became effete because of Asokan

policies is also very thin. All the evidence suggests that Asoka was a

stern monarch although his reign witnessed only a single campaign.

He was shrewd enough in retaining Kalinga although he expressed his

remorse. Well he was wordly-wise to enslave and-and-half lakh sudras

of Kalinga and bring them to the Magadha region to cut forests and

cultivate land. More than this his tours of the empire were not only

meant for the sake of piety but also for keeping an eye on the

centrifugal tendencies of the empire. Which addressing the tribal

people Asoka expressed his willingness to for given. More draconian

was Ashoka's message to the forest tribes who were warned of the

power which he possessed. This view of Raychoudhury on the pacifism

of the State cannot be substantiated.

Apart from these two major writers there is a third view as expressed

by kosambi. He based his arguments that unnccessary measures were

taken up to increase tax and the punch-marked coins of the period

show evidence of debasement. This contention too cannot be up held.

It is quite possible that debased coins began to circulate during the

period of the later Mauryas. On the other hand the debasement may

also indicate that there was an increased demand for silver in relation

to goods leading to the silver content of the coins being reduced. More

important point is the fact that the material remains of the post-

Asokan era do not suggest any pressure on the economy. Instead the

economy prospered as shown by archaeological evidence at

Hastinapura and Sisupalqarh. The reign of Asoka was an asset to the

economy. The unification of the country under single efficient

administration the organization and increase in communications meant

the development of trade as well as an opening of many new

commercial interest. In the post - Asokan period surplus wealth was

used by the rising commercial classes to decorate religious buildings.

The sculpture at Barhut and Sanchi and the Deccan caves was the

contribution of this new bourgeoisie.

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 8 of 56

Still another view regarding of the decline of Mauryas was that the

coup of Pushyamitra was a peoples' revolt against Mauryans

oppression and a rejection of the Maurya adoption of foreign ideas, as

far interest in Mauryan Art.

This argument is based on the view that Sunga art (Sculpture at

Barhut and Sanchi) is more earthy and in the folk tradition that

Maruyan art. This is more stretching the argument too far. The

character of Sunga art changed because it served a different purpose

and its donors belonged to different social classes. Also, Sunga art

conformed more to the folk traditions because Buddhism itself had

incorporated large elements of popular cults and because the donors of

this art, many of whom may have been artisans, were culturally more

in the mainstream of folk tradition.

One more reasoning to support the popular revolt theory is based on

Asoka's ban on the samajas. Asoka did ban festive meetings and

discouraged eating of meat. These too might have entagonised the

population but it is doubtful whether these prohibitions were strictly

enforced. The above argument (people's revolt) also means that

Asoka's policy was continued by his successors also, an assumption

not confirmed by historical data. Further more, it is unlikely that there

was sufficient national consciousness among the varied people of the

Mauryan empire. It is also argued by these theorists that Asokan

policy in all its details was continued by the later Mauryas, which is not

a historical fact.

Still another argument that is advanced in favour of the idea of revolt

against the Mauryas is that the land tax under the Mauryas was onequarter,

which was very burden some to the cultivator. But historical

evidence shows something else. The land tax varied from region to

region according to the fertility of the soil and the availability of water.

The figure of one quarter stated by Magasthenes probably referred

only to the fertile and well-watered regions around Pataliputra.

Thus the decline of the Mauryan empire cannot be satisfactorily

explained by referring to Military inactivity, Brahmin resentment,

popular uprising or economic pressure. The causes of the decline were

more fundamental. The organization of administration and the concept

of the State were such that they could be sustained by only by kings of

considerably personal ability. After the death of Asoka there was

definitely a weakening at the center particularly after the division of

the empire, which inevitably led to the breaking of provinces from the

Mauryan rule.

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 9 of 56

Also, it should be borne in mind that all the officials owed their loyalty

to the king and not to the State. This meant that a change of king

could result in change of officials leading to the demoralization of the

officers. Mauryas had no system of ensuring the continuation of wellplanned

bureaucracy.

The next important weakness of the Mauryan Empire was its extreme

centralization and the virtual monopoly of all powers by the king.

There was a total absence of any advisory institution representing

public opinion. That is why the Mauryas depended greatly on the

espionage system. Added to this lack of representative institutions

there was no distinction between the executive and the judiciary of the

government. An incapable king may use the officers either for

purposes of oppression or fail to use it for good purpose. And as the

successors of Asoka happened to be weak, the empire inevitably

declined.

Added to these two factors, there is no conception of national unity of

political consciousness. It is clear from the fact that even the

resistance against the greeks as the hated miecchas was not an

organized one. The only resistance was that of the local rulers who

were afraid of losing their newly acquired territory. It is significant that

when Porus was fighting Alexander, or when Subhagasena was paying

tribute to Antiochus, they were doing so as isolated rulers in the

northwest of India. They had no support from Pataliputra, nor are they

even mentioned in any Indian sources as offering resistance to the

hated Yavanas. Even the heroic Porus, who, enemy though he was,

won the admiration of the Greeks, is left unrecorded in Indian sources.

Another associated point of great importance is the fact that the

Mauryan Empire which was highly centralized and autocratic was the

first and last one of its kind. If the Mauryan Empire did not survive for

long, it could be because of the failure of the successors of Asoka to

hold on to the principles that could make success of such an empire.

Further, the Mauryan empire and the philosophy of the empire was not

in tune with the spirit of the time because Aryanism and brahminism

was very much there. According to the Brahmin or Aryan philosophy,

the king was only an upholder of dharma, but never the crucial or

architecture factor influencing the whole of life. In other words, the

sentiment of the people towards the political factor, that is the State

was never established in India. Such being the reality, when the

successors of Asoka failed to make use of the institution and the

thinking that was needed to make a success of a centralized political

authority. The Mauryan Empire declined without anyone's regret.

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 10 of 56

Other factors of importance that contributed to the decline and lack of

national unity were the ownership of land and inequality of economic

levels. Land could frequently change hands. Fertility wise the region of

the Ganges was more prosperous than northern Deccan. Mauryan

administration was not fully tuned to meet the existing disparities in

economic activity. Had the southern region been more developed, the

empire could have witnessed economic homogeneity.

Also the people of the sub-continent were not of uniform cultural level.

The sophisticated cities and the trade centers were a great contrast to

the isolated village communities. All these differences naturally led to

the economic and political structures being different from region to

region. It is also a fact that even the languages spoken were varied.

The history of a sub-continent and their casual relationships. The

causes of the decline of the Mauryan empire must, in large part, be

attributed to top heavy administration where authority was entirely in

the hands of a few persons while national consciousness was unknown.

The splendour of the 'Dark Centuries'

The five centuries which passed between the decline of the first great

Indian empire of the Mauryas and the emergence of the great classical

empire of the Guptas has often been described as a dark period in

Indian history when foreign dynasties fought each other for short-lived

and ephemeral supremacy over Northern India. Apart from Kanishka's

Indo-Central Asian empire which could claim to be similar in size and

importance to has china, the parthians of Persia and to the

contemporary Roman empire this period did lack the glamour of large

empires. But this 'dark period' particularly the first two centuries AD

was a period of intensive economic and cultural contact among the

various parts of the Eurasian continent. Indian played a very active

role in stimulating these contacts. Buddhism which has been fostered

by Indian rulers since the days of Ashoka was greatly aided by the

international connections of the Indo-Greeks and the Kushanas and

thus rose to prominence in Central Asia. South India was establishing

its important links with the West and with Southeast Asia in this

period. These links especially those with southeast Asia, proved to be

very important for the future course of Asian history.

But India it self experienced important social and cultural changes in

this period. For centuries Buddhism had enjoyed royal patronage. This

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 11 of 56

was partly due to the fact that the foreign rulers of India found

Buddhism more accessible than orthodox Hinduism. The Vedic

Brahmins had been pushed into the background by the course of

historical development all though Hinduism as such did not experience

a decline. On the contrary new popular cults arose around gods like

Shiva, Krishna and Vishnu-Vasudeva who had played only a marginal

role in an earlier age. The competition between Buddhism which

dominated the royal courts and cities and orthodox Brahminism which

was still represented by numerous Brahmin families every where left

enough scope for these new cults to gain footholds of their own, of

great importance for the further development of Hinduism and

particularly for the Hindu idea of kingship was the Kushana rulers

identification with certain Hindu gods - they were actually believed to

attain a complete identity with the respective god after their death.

Religious legitimation was of greater importance to these foreign rulers

than to other Indian kings. Menander's ashes had been distributed

according to the Buddhist fashion and Kanishka was identified with

Mithras but wima kadphises and Huvishka were closer to shiva as

shown by the images on their coins. Huvishka's coins provide a regular

almanac of the iconography of the early Shiva cult. The deification of

the ruler which was so prevalent in the Roman and Hellenistic world as

well as among the Iranians was thus introduced into India and left a

mark on the future development of Hindu Kingship.

Another future of crucial importance for the future political

development of India was the organization of the Shaka and Kushana

Empires had been, but were based on the large-scale incorporation of

local rulers. In subsequent centuries many regional Empires of India

were organized on this pattern.

The most well-known contribution of the 'dark-period' was a course, to

Indian art. After the early sculptures of the Mauryas which were

greatly influenced by the Iranian style, a new Indian style, a new

Indian style has fist emerged under Shungas and their successors in

the Buddhist monuments of Bharhut and Sanchi which particularly

showed a new style of relief sculpture. The merger of the Gandhara

school of art, with its Graeco-Roman style and the Mathura school of

art which included 'archaic' Indian elements and became the center of

Indo-Kushana art, finally led to the rise of the Sarnath school of art.

This school then set the pattern of the classical Gupta style.

Less-well-known, but much more important for the future

development of Hindu society, was the compilation of the authoritative

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 12 of 56

Hindu law books (dharmasastra), the foremost of them being the code

of Manu which probably originated in the second or third century AD.

After the breakdown of the Maurya and Shunga Empires, there must

have been a period of uncertainty, which led to renewed interest in

traditional social norms. These were then codified so as to remain

inviolate for all times to come. If we add to this the resurgence of

Sanskrit, as testified by Rudradaman's famous rock inscription of the

second century AD. We see that this 'dark-period' actually contained

all the element of the classical culture of the Gupta age, Thus the

many splendoured and much maligned 'dark-period' was actually the

harbinger of the classical age.

POST-MAURYAN PERIOD (20BC -

300AD)

ECONOMY AND SOCIETY

In the post-Mauryan era (200 BC. To 300 A.D.) the economy moved at

an accelerated tempo. Society witnessed structural reorientation as

significant groups of foreigners penetrated into India and chose to be

identified with the rest of the community.

The occupation of craftsmen was an important segement of the day's

socio-economic milieu. The craftsment were not only associated with

the towns but also villages like Karimnagar in the Telengana region of

Andhra Pradesh. The categories of craftsmen who were known in this

period bear out the truth that there was considerable specialization in

mining and metallurgy. A large number of iron artifacts have been

discovered at various excavated sites relating to the Kushan and

Satavahans Periods. It is surprising to notice that the Telengana region

appears to have made special progress in iron artifacts - not only

weapons but also balance rods, sickles, ploughshares, razors and

ladels have been found in the Karimnagar and Nalgonda districts. Also,

cutlery made out of iron and steel was exported to the Abyssinian

ports.

Equally significant was the progress made in cloth-making and silkweaving.

Dyeing was a craft of repute in some south Indian towns like

Uraiyur, a shurb of Tiruchirapalli, and Arikamedu. The use of oil was

also high because of the invention of oil wheel. The inscriptions of the

day mention weavers, goldsmiths, dyers, workers in metal and ivory,

jewelers, sculptors, fishermen, perfumers and smiths as the donors of

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 13 of 56

caves, pillars, tablets, cisterns etc. Among the luxury items the

important ones were ivory and glass articles and beed cutting. At the

beginning of the coristian era the knowledge of glass-blowing reached

India and attained its peak. Coin minting also reached a high level of

excellence made out of gold, silver, copper, bronze, lead and potin. A

coint mould of the Satavahans period shows that through it half a

dozen coins could be turned out a time.

In urban handicrafts the pride of place goes to the beautiful pieces of

terracotta produced in profuse quantities. They have been found in

most of the sites belonging to the Kushan and Satavahans periods. In

particular, terracotta figures of great beauty have been found in the

Nalgonda district of Telengana. The terracotta figures were mostly

meant for the use of upper classes in towns.

This immense manufacturing activity was maintained by guilds. At

least to dozen kinds of guilds were there. Most of the artisans known

from inscriptions hailed from the Mathura region and the western

Deccan which lay on the trade routes leading to the ports on the

western coast.

The guilds, coming from the days of the Mauryan period, became a

more important factor in the urban life both in being instrumental to

increase in production and moulding public opinion. The primary guilds

of the day were those of the potters, metal workers and carpenters.

Some guilds organized their own distribution system while owning a

large number of boats to transport goods from various ports on the

Ganges.

The guilds of the day fixed their own rules of work and the standards

of the finished products. They exercised care regarding price also to

safeguard the interest of both the artisan and the customer. They

controlled the price of the manufactured articles. He conduct of the

guild members was regulated through a guild court. The customary

uses of the guilds had the same force as those of laws.

The extensive activity of the guilds can be known from their seals and

emblems. The banners and insignia of each guild were carried in

procession of festive occasions. These prosperous guilds in addition,

donated large sums of money to religious institutions and charitable

causes.

Since the activity of the guilds was so buoyant, it appears that they

attracted the attention of kings too. It is said that kings had financial

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 14 of 56

interests in guilds. Royalty invested its money in commercial activities.

This naturally led to protection being provided by State to the guilds.

Regarding the activities of guilds, it appears from inscriptions that they

acted asbankers, financiers and trustees although these activities were

carried out by a separate class of people known as sresthins. Usury

was a part of banking and the general rate of interest was around 15%

loans extended to sea-trade carried higher interest rate. An authority

of the day states that the rate of interest should vary according to the

caste of the man to whom money is lent.

Interestingly, apart from the guilds, there were workers bodies also.

The workers co-operative included artisans and various crafts

associated with a particular enterprise. The classic example of this

activity was the co-operative of builders, which has its members drawn

from specialized workers such as architects. Engineers, bricklayers etc.

The immense commercial activity was bolstered by the thriving trade

between India and the Easter Roman Empire. With the movement of

Central Asian people like Sakas, Parthians and Kushans, trade came to

be carried across the sea. Among the ports, the important ones were

Broach and Sopara on the western coast, and Arikamedu and

Tamralipti on the eastern coast. Out of these ports Broach was the

most important as not only goods were exported from here but a also

goods were received. Across land, the converging point of trade routes

was Taxila, which was connected with the Silk Route passing through

Central Asia. Ujjain was the meeting point of good number of trade

routes.

The trade between India and Rome mostly consisted of luxury goods.

To begin with Rome got her imports from the southern most portions

of the country. The Roman imports were Muslims, pearls, jewels and

precious stones from Central and South India. Iron articles formed an

important item of export to the Roman Empire. For certain articles

India became the clearing house, as for example, silk from China

because of impediments posed by the Parthian rule in Iran and the

neighboring areas.

The Romans, in return, exported to India various types of potters

found in excavations at places like Tamluk in West Bengal, Arikamedu

nevar Pondicherry and a few other places. Probably lead was important

from Rome. It is also presumed that the Kushans had brisk trade with

the Romans as they conquered Mesopotamia in 115 A.D. At a place

close to Kabul, glass jars made in Italy, Egypt and Syria have come to

light, apart from small bronze statues of Greko-Roman style, And the

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 15 of 56

most significant Roman export to India was the gold and silver coins -

nearly 85 finds of Roman coins have been found. There is nothing

surprising in the lamentation of the Roman writer Pliny in the 1st

century A.D. that Roman was being drained of gold on account of

trade with India.

Indian kingdoms sent embassies to Rome the best known being the

one sent about 25 B.C. Which included strange collection of men and

animals-tigers, snakes, tortoises a monk and an armless boy who

could shoot arrows with his toes. This mission reached Rome during

the days of Emperor Augustus in 21 B.C.

In the southern kingdoms maritime trade occupied the pride of place.

The literature of the day refers to harbours, docks, light houses and

custom offices. Large variety of ships were built, both for short

distance as well as long distance voyages. According to pliny the

largest Indian ship was 75 tons. Other sources mention higher figures.

In the self-same period there was a boom in trade with south-East

Asia. This was first occasioned by the Roman demand for spices.

Gradually this trade grew in dimensions.

The growing number of strangers in the port towns and trade centers

led to their absorbing Indian habits as their numbers grew, social laws

of the day became rigid as to be seen from the law code of Manu.

Further as conversions to Hinduism was technically impossible the

non-Indian groups gradually grew into separate sub-castes. After all

the conversion of a single individual was a problem but the device of

caste made such absorption easier. Moreover the foreigners found it

easier to become Buddhists instead of Aryans. Faced one theoretical

knowledge confined to brahmins and the other practical and technical

knowledge which became the preserve of the professionals.

It was during this period Dharmashastras came to be written. These

Shastras made the social structure to be rigid. Apart from these

writings poetry and drama were also popular. The outstanding poem in

Tamil was Shilappadigaram. Another poem in Tamil was Manimegalai.

In Sanskrit, Asvaghosa and Bhasa were the two great dramatists. The

manuscripts of Asvaghosa were found in a monastry in Turdan in

Central Asia. Both of his plays deal with Buddhist themes. Bhasa

appeared a couple of centuries later. His plays are based on the

incident from the spics or historical romances around the exploits of

king udayan in Avanti.

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 16 of 56

In the field of plastic art. Great were the achievement of this period

like the stupas at Sanchi and Bar hut the caves at Karlellora and

Ajanta. At Amravati the great age of painting began. Also the

sculptures at Amravati show a mastery of stone sculpture and with the

mathura school of sculpture the Indian tradition of sculpture began.

The booming trade and commerce of the period was at the base of the

urban settlements that came into existence. The important towns of

northern India were Vaishali, Pataliputra, Varanasi, Kausambi,

Sravasti, Hastinapur, Mathura and Indraprastha. Most of the towns

flourished in the Kushan period as revealed by excavations. The

excavations at Sonkh in Mathura show as many as seven levels of the

Kushan are but only one of the Gupta period. Again in Jalandhar,

Ludhiana and Ropar also several sites show good Kushan structures.

The Satayahans kingdown also witnessed thriving towns like Tagar,

Paithan, Dhanyakataka, Amravati, Nagarjunakonda, Broach, Sopara,

Arikamedu and Kaveripattanam.

HISTORY AND IMPACT OF

Indo-Greeks

After Alexander the Great, the greed seleukidan dynasty of Persia held

on to the trans-Indus region. After seleukos Nikator was defeated by

Chanragupta Maurya in 303 B.C. the trans-Indus region was

transferred to the Mauryas. In mid third century B.C. the seleukidan

rule was ended by two peoples. In Iran the parthiar became

independent and their sassanians in 226 A.D. In like manner the

greeks of Bactria rose in revolt under the leadership of Diodotus.

These Greeks were later known as Indo-Greeks when they gained a

foot-hold in the Indian sub-continent.

Bactria situated between the Hindu Kush and the oxus, was a fertile

region and it controlled the trade routes from Gandhara to the West.

The greek settlement in Bactria began in the 5th century B.C. when

Persian emperors settled the Greek exiles in that area.

Bactria figured in history with the revolt of diodotus against Antiochus

the seleukidan king. This breakaway of Bactria was recnised by the

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 17 of 56

seleukidans when the grandson of Diodotus, Enthymemes. Was given

a seleukidan bride in about 200 B.C.

About the same time the seleukidan king defeated king subhagasena

after crossing the Hindu Kush in 206 B.C. This defeat reveals the

unguarded nature of northwestern India.

Thus begins the history of Indo-Greeks. The history of the Indo-Greeks

is mainly gathered from their coins. This evidence is very often

confusion because many kings had identical names.

The son of Euthydemos, Demetrios, Conquered modern southern

afghanistion and the Makran area he also occupied some parts of

Punjab. Then around 175 B.C. the homeland of Bactrians came to be

ruled by Eukratides, another branch of the Bactrians. His son

Demetrios-II penetrated deep into the Punjab proceeding along the

Indus, he penetrated till kutch.

The most known Indo-Greek was Menander, whose claim rests on the

Buddhist treatise the Questions of king Milinda-discussion between

menander and the Buddhist philosopher, Nagasena and he ruled the

Punjab from C.160 to 140 B.C.

Menander not only stabilized his power but extended his frontiers. His

coins are to be found in the region extending from Kabul to Mathura

near Delhi. He attempted to conquer the Ganges valley but in vain.

Probabley he was defeated by the Sungas.

After menander one Strato ruled. At that time Bactaria was rule by a

different group of Bactrians. Probably Mitrhadates - I of Persia

annexed the region of Taxila during the third quarter of the second

century B.C.

A little later, Antialkidas ruled from Taxila as known from the

inscription from besnagar near Bhilsa. This inscription was incised on

the order of Heliodoros, who was the envoy of antialkidas in the court

of Besnagar. Heliodoros got a monolithic column built in honour of

vasudeva. Thus began the Bhakti cult of Vasudeva.

The last known greek kings were hippostratos and Hermaeus, the

former defeated by moga and the latter by khadphisus.

Indo-Greek influence declined from the time Bactria itself was attacked

by the nomadic tribes from central Asia, the scythians.

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 18 of 56

The penetration of Indo-Greeks, as well as of sakas pahlavas and

Kushana influenced the government, society, religion literature and art

of ancient India. The very fact that India absorbed influences of these

foreigners speaks for the then youthful nature of Indian civilization.

The extent of Greek influence of Indian Civilisation is a most point.

Whatever the Greek influence that was felt by India came in the wake

of Alexander's invasion of the cast and the settlement of Greeks in the

Bactrian region. Alexander himself cannot be regarded as the standard

bearer of the heritage of ancient Greece. By the time Alexander and

his soldiers marched towards the east the culture of Greece was on the

decline hence at the most Alexander and his men could have spread a

debased version of the great Geek civilization represented by Socrates,

Plato, Phidia, Aristotle, Sophocles, Pythagoras and others. Despite the

fact that Alexander and his men could not be the true torch bearers of

Greek culture to the east, the traces of Greek influence could be

definitely found on India civilization.

To begin with, the invasion of Alexander left very little imprint on

Indian civilization. Indian rulers did not adopt the military tactics of

Alexander, but continued to rely on their forefold organization.

Although the region that was beyond the Hindu Kush in the Mauryan

period was definitely in close contact with whatever the Greek

influence that was there, the Greek influence was not felt in the

interior of India. Probably the use of stone in buildings and sculptures

by the Mauryas was inspired by the Greek practice of working in stone.

Columns of the Ionic order were definitely used in the buildings of

satavahana

SATAVAHANA ACHIEVEMENTS


The government if the Satavahana kingdom was organized on the

traditional lines. The kingdom was divided into Janapadas, which were

further sub-divided into aharas. Each ahara was under an Amataya.

The basic unit of the ahara was the grama with the village headman

called gamika. Central control was maintained over the provices.

Princes were generally made viceroys. And the kings did not assume

high-sounding titles. They were expected to maintain dharma.

Taxation was not burden some. The state derived its income from

crown lands, court fees, fines and ordinary taxes on lands. The

extraordinary taxes of the Mauryan period were not imposed. In

general, Central control was not high because feudal traits emerged in

the Satavahana period. The feudal chiefs like maharathas

mahasenapatis and mahabhojas issued their own coins.

The area under the satavahanas in general witnessed considerable

prosperity. There was brisk trade. Broach was the most important port

and it had a vast and rich hinterland. Pratishthana produced cotton

cloth. Tagara and Ujjain produced muslin. The chief imports were

wines, copper, tin, lead and gold and silver coins. Another important

port was kalyan mentioned in the Perilus. The other ports were

Sopara, Goa and pigeon islands. Within the kingdom there were

important cities like Tagara, Prathishthana, Nasik, Junnar and

Dhanyakataka. Koddura and Chinnaganjam were the important ports

on the east. The general life led by the people was similar to the one

portrayed in Vatsayana's Kama-Sutra.

Evidence also shows that a good number of people emigrated from the

Deccan to colonize the regions in South-East Asia

The Satavahanas and Shiva were worshiped. Saptasataka reveals the

worship of many Hindu deities. Vaishnavasim and Shavism grew

popular. Gautamiputra-Satakarni claimed himself to be the protector

of brahmins. The Naisk prasasthi states that Varnashrama Dharmawas

maintained.

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 30 of 56

Buddhism too was popular. Both the sakas and Satavahanas

encouraged Buddhism. Ushavadata mare several grants to Buddhist

monks. Some of these grants were renewed by Guatamiputra

Satakarni. Buddhist momuments and stupas came into existence at

Nasik, Vidisa, Bhattiprolu, Goli, Ghantasala and Amaravati. It was at

the last plece that most probably human figures were carved out for

the first time. And the stupa at this place had a marble railing with

relief sculptures. A vaijayanti merchant was responsible for enriching

Karle and Kanheri Buddhist caves. Merchants from Nasik contributed

to the caves at Vidisa and Bharhut. In brief cave architecture and

building of stupas witnessed certain development under the auspices

of the satavahanas; and the donations or the merchants belonging to

the guilds prove the commercial prosperity of the area.

Emcouraged by wealth the kings patronized literature and architecture.

Hala was an authority on the Puranas. He was the author of Sapta-

Sataka. It is said that Hala paid as much as 40 million pieces of gold

for four kavyas. Leelavati deals with the military campaigns of Hala.

The kings encouraged architecture. The five gateways at Sanchi the

rock-cut Chaity-halls of Bhaja, Karle, Nasik and Kanheri and the stupas

at Amaravati, Bhattiprolu, Goli and Ghantasala were built in this

period. The capitals of the pillars in Karle caves are elaborately

sculptured. The dome and the base of the Amaravati stupa is

elaborately sculptured. Jataka stories were incised on marble slabs.

The upper part of the dome is a beautiful floral design. It is generally

said that its construction began during the t8ime of Gautamiputra

Satakarni and was completed during the time of Yajna Sri Satakarni.

Most probably two Ajanta Frescoes (9th and 10th) came into existence

during this period.

The satavahanas weregreat excavators of cave temples and the

magnificent temples of Ellora and Ajanta were the continuation of the

Satavahana tradition to which all Middle Indian dynasties in succeeding

ages claimed historic relationship. The basic tradition in Middle India is

of the Satavahana empire. As in the north it is of the Mauryan. From

the point of view of historic continuity it is important to remember this

primary fact as up to quite recent times the traditions flowing from the

satavahanas were living factors in Indian history.

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 31 of 56

Significance Of The Satavahanas

(1) It was the emergence of Vakataka power in the Vindhya area some

where about the middle of the third century that brought about the

downfall of the Satavahanas. But an empire so firely established in its

home domains does not break down with the fall of a dynasty. The

Rastrakutas and the Chalukyas in the Godavari valley and the Pallavas

in the south originally the viceroys of the Satavahanas, claimed

successtion to the empire with in their own territorial limits as the

Vakatakas claimed it to the north of the Vindhyas. The Gangas and the

Kadambas were also the inheritors of the tradition and as the

Vijayanagar emperors claimed in time to be Chalukya Chudamanis, or

the crest jewels of the Chalukya dynasty and as the great kings of

Gujarat equally claimed succession from the Chalukyas, the imperial

tradition of the Satavahanas may be said to have been carried forward

at least to the beginning of the seventeenth century.

(2) The rise of the Satavahanas signified that the economic revolution

of the Gangetic region was repeated allover India. Added to this

because of the peculiar geographical terrain of the Deccan peninsula a

number of small kingdoms came into existence but not any big empire.

(3) Since the Satavahanas had controlled part of the Deccan and part

of northern India, they acted as the couriers of Aryanism to southern

India.

(4) It is intriguing to note that the Satavahana inscriptions were

primarily in pali but not in Sanskrit indicating it look long time to

establish Sanskrit language as the language of the elite although

people professed Aryanism much earlier.

(5) The administrative structure of the Satavahana is a revealing one

because it was not a highly centralized administration and it conceded

the emergence of feudalism. Feudal chiefs like Mahara this

mahasenapatis and mahabhojas issued their own coins.

(6) The artistic excellence that was achieved under the aegis of the

Satavahanas had a tremendous significance. Buddhist mouments came

into existence at Nasik, Vidisha, Bhattiprolu, Goli, Ghantasala and

amaravati. Most probably human figure was first carved out at

Amaravati and Amaravati's sculptures influenced South-east Asian

sculptures.

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 32 of 56

(7) Under the aegis of the Satavahanas trade was given a boost. The

important pores were Koddura and Chinnaganjam on the east and

Kalyan, Sopara, Goa and Pigeon islands on the West coast. And some

of the important commercial centers were Tagara, Pratishthana, Nasik,

Junnar and Dhanyakataka.

Saka-satavahana Conflict

1. There is controversy about the name 'Sakas'. Some hold the view

that they were probably. One branch of them was known as

kshabaratas. Some say Nahapana was a pahlava and Ghasmotika the

father of Chashtana was Scythian. It was from the Gupta period that

the name 'saka' came to be applied to this family of people.

2. The one reason that was responsible for the southward thrust of the

sakas was the Kushan pressure from the north.

3. To begin with they established themselves in western Rajputana,

Gujarat and Kathiawad. Then they took malva and even northern

Maharashtra from the Satavahanas. At one time they even got

southern Maharashtra as far as Vijayanti from the Satavahanas.

4. The earliest known king of the Kshaharatas, a branch of the Sakas,

was Bhumaka. He ruled over Gujarat, Kathiawad and north

Konkancoins belonging to him are found.

5. His successor was Nahapana-title Raja-numerous coins-advanced at

the expense of Satavahanas-this advance began five years before the

end of Nahapana's rule. After Nahapana defeated the Satavahana he

assumed the title of Maha Kshatrapa. A Jaina work mentions Broach as

the capital of Nahapana.

6. Ushavadata was the general and son-in-law of Nahapana and he

succeeded him as the Saka ruler. He took western deccan including

Malva. It is not known whether Paithan, the capital of Satavahanas

was lost or not. He defeated Satavahana rulers were Sundara

Satakarni, Chakora Satakarni and Siva sati.

It is interesting to note that Ushavadata following Puranic Hinduism

gve cows to brahmins - visited Pushiar - gave religious benefactions -

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 33 of 56

also gave viallages to Buddhists - Saka country was divided into

districts.

7. It was Gautamiputra Satakarni who revived the glories of

Satavahanas. He defeated the successor of Nahapana, Ushavadata

was killed. Some say that he defeated Nahapana. Also a Jaina work

speaks of Nahapana's defeat and death at the hands of Satavahanas.

The coins of Nahapana were re-issued by Gautamiputra Satakarni.

Some land grants also confirm this victory. It is said that the

Satavahana king made preparations for 16 years to defeat the Sakas.

8. The coflict was re-opened during the days of Pulumayi II, the king

after Gautamiputra Satakarni, as well as, Sri Pulumayi.

9. After this Ghamotika appeared on the stage who ruled over

Kathiwad. His successor, Ghashtana also infliceted defeats on the

Satavahanas. Rudraman too defeated the Satavahanas. The victory of

Rudraman and Ghastana around 150 A.D. (cofirmed by Junagarh

inscription) mad the Patavahanas lose all their northern conquests.

Significance:-

(1) The conflict between the Sakas and Satavahanas was inevitable as

such conflicts were natural in feudal times. Probably the Sakas were

perforce dieven to expand southward because of the establishment of

Kushan empire. The Saka-Satavahana conflict was because of the

basic factors working in the political dynamic of the day.

(2) The Sakas issued coins of great artistic value. Gatuamiputra

Satakarni re-issued the coins of Nahapana. In other words, the Sakas

had a better artistic sense.

(3) Evidence shows that the Sakas introduced new ideas and

institutions in south-silver coins, free use of Sanskrit and Vigorour

patronage of Buddhists and brahmins. Kshaharatas used Khoreshthi -

alphabet of extreme north-west.

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 34 of 56

Sanskrit

Sanskrit is a remote cousin of all the language of Europe ecepting the

Finnish, Hungarian, Turkish and basqe. Around 2000 B.C. an ancestral

group of dialects arose among the tribesmen of South Russia.

With Panini (probably 4th century B.C.) the Sanskrit language reached

its classical form. It developed a little thense forward except in its

vocabulary. The grammer of Panini, Asthadhyayi, pre-supposes the

work of may earlier grammarians. Latter grammars are mostly

commentaries on Panini, the chief being Mahabashya by Patanjali

(second century B.C.) and the Banaras-commentary of Jayaditya and

Vamana (seventh century A.D.).

It was from the time of Panini onwards that the language began to be

called Samskarta, perfected or refined, as opposed to Prakras

(natural), the popular dialects which had grown over time. In all

probability, Panini bsed his work on the languages as it was spoken in

the north west. Beginning as the lingua franca of the priestly class, it

gradually became that of the governing class also. The first important

dynasty to use Sanskrit was that of the Sakas of Ujjain and the

inscriptions of Rudraman at Girnar. Otherwise, the Maurya and the

other important dynasty till the Guptas used Prakrit for their official

pronouncements.

The Language of the Rig Veda was already archaic when the hymns

were composed and the ordinary Aryan spoke a sompler tongue, moer

closely akin to classical Sanskrit. By the time of the Buddha themasses

were speaking languages which were much simpler than Sanskrit.

These were the prakrits. The ordinary speech of Ancient India has

been preserved forus largely throughthe unorthodox religions. Most

inscriptions of pre-Gupta time are in Prakrit. The women and humbler

characters of the Sanskrit drama are made to speak in formalized

prakrit of various dialects. A few of secular literary works were

composed in Prakrit.

Classical Sanksrit increasing became thelanguage of brahmins and the

learned few. Its use was restricted to certainoccasions such as issuing

of proclamations and during the performance of Vedic ceremonies. In

the towns and villages a popular form of Sanksrit, known as Prakrit,

came into the existence. There were a breat number of local

variations. The chief western variety was called Shuraseni and the

eastern variety, Magadhi, Pali was another popular language based on

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 35 of 56

Sanksrit. It, too, was used in the same religions as Prakrit. The

Buddha, to reach more people, taught in Magadhi.

Speaking of literature, the four Vedas and the Brahmins and

Upnishadas have some literary qualities. Some hymns of the Rig Veda

and some parts of the early Upnishadas have some merit. Otherwise,

they are mostly dry and monotonous.

In the 1028 hymns of the Rig Veda there is a great variety of styled

and merit. The hymns contain many repetitions and the majority of

them have the sameness of outlook. A number of hymns show

deployment feeling for nature, as for example, the hymns to Ushas. A

few vedic hymns are primarily secular, as for example the Gamester's

Lament.

Very tittle of liverary quality is there in the later Vedic literature the

Atherva veda mostly a monotonous collection contains a few poems of

great merit. The prose Brahmanas, though written in simple and

straight forward language have little literary merit.

Thus the earliest Indian literature is to be found in the Mahabharata

and the Ramayana. The Mahabharata consisting of 90,00 stanzas, is

probably the longest single poem in the world's literature. Ignoring the

interpolations, the style of the Mahabharata is direct and vivid though

consisting of repeated clinches and stock epithets, typical of epic

literature every where. The chief characters are delineated in a very

simple outline but with an individuality which makes them real

persons.

The other epic Ramayana also contains interpolations but they are

much briefer and are mostly didactic. The main body of the poem

gives the impression of being the work of one author whose style was

based on that of the other epic to show some kinship to that of

classical Sanskrit poetry. The style of the Ramayana is less rugged

than that of the Mahabharata. It is a work of greater art and it

contains many dramatic passages and beautiful descriptive writing.

The earliect surviving Sanskrit poetry is that of the Buddhist writer

Ashvaghosa who probably lived in the Ist century A.D. He composed

the Buddha-Charitra in a comparatively simple classical style. The

Girnar inscription of Rudradaman, dated 150 A.D. is the earliest

surviving example of Sanskrit prose.

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 36 of 56

The earliest surviving prose stories are a few narrative episodes in the

Brahmanas followed by the pali Jatakas. It was in the Gupta period

that ornate Sanskrit prose was developed. The chief writers in this

style were Dandin, Subandhu and Bana.

Prakrit

Chronologically pali is the first Sanskrit language and various Prakrits

oppeared later. Even the meaning of the word 'Pali' underwent

changes. In the final stages the word "Pali" meant language of the

texts of Theravada Buddhism. The Tripitaka meaning three baskets are

books which consist of the canons of the Theravada sect. One part of it

deals with the monastic discipline. The second part lays down

principles of Buddhism. And the last part deals with various subjects

like ethics psychology theories of knowledge and metaphysical

problems.

Besides the canonical literature, there was also non-canomical

literature in pali. In pali liberature the earlieat works relate to the

Jataka stories. The early poetry consisted of a few verses from the

songs of the older monks and Nuns, a collection of poems ascribed

wrongly to the great disciples of the Buddha in the early days of the

order. The style of these is simpler then Sanskrit literature and

suggests influence of popular song. The book milinda panda is the

most important one. Its subject matter is the dialogue between Milinda

and monk Nagasena over some problems of the Buddhist faith. This

particular kind of canonical literature in pali was practised in Ceylon

also. The classical works Depavamsa and Mahavamsa, the two great

chronicles of Ceylon and also some grammatical metrical and

lexicographical texts were written in pali.

Now for the word "Prakrit". It stands for all the middle Indo-Aryan

speeches which belong to an era between Sanskrit on the one hand

and Aryan languages it has sectarian value since it was exclusively

used as the speech of the Hinayana Buddhism.

From the earliest times to the first century A.D. inscriptions were

composed exclusively in Prakrit. Asoka left behind 30 inscriptions in

Prakrit. Even in literature prakrit came to be used particularly in plays.

And prakrit itself consists of different dialects. There were several

other prakrits of lesser importance. By the time of the Guptas the

prakrits were standardized and had lost their local character. The

vernaculars had already developed beyond them. What panini did for

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 37 of 56

Sanskrit others did dor the Prakrits and they began to resemble more

the languages actually were based on the conventions of dramatic

theory and they never represented popular life. Now did they reflect in

any way the linguistic conditions of society. Some plays are composed

exclusively in Prakrit and they are technically called sttakas. The

Karpuramanjari (about 900 A.D.) Rajasekhara depicting love between

man and woman is the most important work of this type.

Continuting the secular aspect of Prakrit language a number of stanzas

were written both on love and maxims. The most remarkable amongst

such texts is the Gatha Saptasati of Hala one of the Satavahana rulers.

This book consists of 700 stanzas about love depicting the varied

phases of South Indian rural life. The king probably ruled in the Ist

century A.D. The poems are notable for their consciseness and for

their great economy of words and masterly use of suggestions. Some

poems contain simple and natural descriptions and references to the

lives of peasants and the lower class. More important is the fact that

narrative literature and epic poems are fairly extensive in Prakrit. The

most noteworthy among themare the Brihatkatha of Gunadhya

composed in Paisachi dialect and Setubandha of Pravarasena.

Apart from secular literature prakrit was used for religious literature

also like the Jaina canonical works. It was during the 5th century A.D.

that most of the Jaina canons were written down. In prakrit literature

the Jaina writings have very little literary the poetry of the Jainas is

better than prose. Its poetry is written in lively vernacular style.

Furthermore it is to be stated here that scholars treated Apabhramas

as a kind of Prakrit. It boasts of extensive literature particularly

narrative stories. The first writer to make use of it was Asvaghosa. The

others who followed the example were Bhasa (3rd century A.D.) and

later Visakhadatta and kalidasa.

In the Apabhramsa the meter doha was adopted as powerful form of

expression of religious and philosophical thoughts. Both Jaina monks

and contemporary writers of Tantrik Bhddhism utilized this meter.

Incidentally stray poems dealing with morals maxims ethics religious

discourses and legenos were commonly written in Apabhramsa. Among

the Jains the columinous texts on the life and activities of Jaina heroes

were written in Apabhramsa. It may be noted here in the end that

Apabhramsa, Sanskrit and Prakrit had a great influence both on

Gujarati and Hindi as late as the 16th century.

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 38 of 56

Futhermore Prakrit is of linguistic importance since it is illustrative of

the linguistic evolution from Prakrit to Apabhramsa and finally to a new

regional language. Apabhramsa meaning falling down was a corrupt

form of Prakrit dialect. It is believed to have originated in the northwest

and traveled from that region along with the migrant people who

scattered and settled incentral and western India after the Huna

invasions. The Prakrit as used by Jains was greatly influenced by

Apabhramsa. It is here that the link between the older and the new

languages of Maharashtri and Gujarati is evident.

India's Impact on Southeast Asia

Causes and Consequences

The transmission of Indian culture of distant parts of Central Asia,

China, Japan, and especially Southeast Asia is certainly one of the

greatest achievements of Indian history or even of the history of

mankind. None of the other great civilizations - not even the Hellenic -

had been able to achieve a similar success without military conquest.

In this brief survey of India's history, there is no room for an adequate

discussion of the development of the 'Indianised' states of Southeast

Asia which can boast of such magnificent temple cities as Pagan

(Burma; constructed from 1044 to 1287 AD,) Angkor (Combodia;

constructed from 889 to c. 1300 AD), and the Borobudur (Java, early

ninth century AD). Though they were influenced by Indian culture,

they are nevertheless part and parcel of the history of those respective

countries. Here we will limit our observations to some fundamental

problems oncerning the transmission of Indian culture to the vast

region of Sotheast Asia.

Who Spread Indian Culture in Southeast Asia ?

Historians have formulated several theories regarding the transmission

of Indian culture of Southeast Asia :

(1) the 'Kshatriya' theory;

(2) the 'Vaishya' theory;

(3) the 'Brahmin' theory.

The Kshatriya theory states that Indian warriors colonized Southeast

Asia; this proposition has now been rejected by most scholars

although it was very prominent some time ago.

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 39 of 56

The Vaishya theory attributes the spread of Indian cultura to traders;

it is certainly much more plausible than the Kshatriya theory, but does

not seem to explain the large number of Sanskrit loan words in

Southeast Asian languages.

The Brahmin hypothesis credits Brahmins with the transmission of

Indian culture; this would account for the prevalence of these

loanawards; but may have to be amplified by some reference to the

Buddhists as well as to be amplified by some reference to the

Buddhsits as well as to the traders. We shall return to these theories,

but first we shall try to understand the rise and fall of the Kshatriya

theory.

It owed its origin to the Indian freedom movement. Indian historians,

smarting under the stigma of their own colonical sujection, tried to

compensate for this by showing that al leat in ancient times Indians

had been strong enough to establish colonise of their own. In 1926 the

Greater India society was established in Calcutta and in subsequent

years the renewed Indian historia R.C. Majumdar published his series

of studies, Ancient Indian colonise in the Far East. This school held

that Indian kings and warriors had established such colonise and the

Sanksrit names of South east Asian rulers seemed to provide ample

supporting evidence. At least this hypothesis stimulated further

research, though it also alienated those intellectuals of Southeast Asia

who rejected the idea of having once been colonized by a 'Greater

India'. As research progressed it was found that there was vary little

proof of any direct Indian political influence in those states of

Southeast Asia. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that Southeast

Asian rulers had adopted Sanskrit names the mselves - thus such

names could not be adduced as evidence for the presence of Indian

kings.

The Vaishya theory, in contrast, emphasized a much more important

element of the Indian connection with Southeast Asia. Trade had

indeed been the driving force behind all these early contacts.

Inscriptions also showed that guids of Indian merchants had

established outposts in many parts of Southeast Asia. Some of their

inscriptions were written in languages such as Tamil. However, if such

merchants had been the chief agents of the transmission of Indian

culture, then all their languages should have made an impact on those

of Southeast Asia. But this was not so : Sanskrit and, to some extent,

languages. The traders certainly provided an important transmission

belt for all kinds of cultural influences. Nevertheless, they did not play

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 40 of 56

the crucial role which some scholars have attributed to them. One of

the most important arguments against the Vaishya theory is that some

of the earliest traces of Indianised states in Southeast Asia are not

found in the coastalareas usually frequented by the traders, but in

mountainous, interior areas.

The Brahmin theory is in keeping with what we have shown with

regard to the almost contemporary spread of Hindu culture in

Southern and Central India. There Brahmins and Buddhist and Jain

monks played the major role in transmitting cultural values and

symbols, and in disseminating the style of Hundu kingship. In addition

to being religious specialists, the Brahmins also knew the Sanskrit

codes regarding law (dharmasastra), the art of government

(arthasastra), and art and architecture (silpasastra). They could taus

serve as development planners' in many different fields and were

accordingly welcome to Southeast Asian rulers who may have just

emerged from what we earlier described as first-and second phase

state formation.

taxila

Taxila.


To speak point wise, the first influence of the Greeks was on the divine

right theory of kingship. The Indo-Greeks took high sounding title e

like divine kings, sons of gods, etc. and maintained the myth of

Empire. Even before Indo-Greek rulers established themselves in India

the services of the Greeks were utilized. Ashoka appointed a Greek as

very viceroy of his province. And after the Indo-Greek period, a Greek,

during the period of Kushans, was entrusted with engineering work.

Talking of social life, a number of Greeks figure as donors in the

inscription of the Karle caves. The Greek mode of wearing hair and the

habit of eating in a lying posture came into vogue. Also when some of

the Indo-Greeks settled in India, they took to trade and they became

affluent merchants. Even Tamil literature refers to Greek ships

bringing cargoes, and the Greek section of Kaveripatnam was very

prosperous. And some of the Tamil kings kept Greek body-guards.

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 19 of 56

Regarding science, contemporary writers admit the greatness of the

Greek scientists. The Gargi Samhita admits that the Greeks were like

gods in science and they penetrated into India as far as Pataliputra.

Varahmihira, during the Gupta age was in the know of Greek science

and used a number of Greek technical terms in his works, It is also

argued that Charaka was influenced by the works of Hippocrates, the

father of Medicine, but there is not evidence to confirm this view. Thus

it is difficult to conjecture the extent to which ancient scientists of

India were influenced by the scientific knowledge of Greeks.

In the field of art, first the Indo-Greeks did contribute to die cutters'

art. They showed a remarkable skill in making the portraits of rulers.

Also the Greek kings adopt some of the indigenous methods of minting

the coins. Although Indians did not fully learn the fine art of diecutting,

the coins of Indian rulers were influenced by the Greeks.

Indian adopted the art of striking coins with two dies, the obverse and

the reverse. Secondly, the curious open air theatre that came into

being in this period was directly a Greek legacy. The term Yavanika for

curtain shows that Indian drama, at least on one point, was influenced

by the Greek model, Thridly, the Greek form of sculpture influenced

the Gandhara art of the Kushan period. The school began in the Kabul

valley where the Greek influence was the maximum. Accordingly tone

author, the terracottas of toys and plaques were all influenced by the

Greeks.

In the religious field too, the Greek influence was felt, as borne out by

Millinda-Panho and the Besnagar inscription. Legions of Greeks were

converted into Indian religions of the day. One Greek officer,

Theodorus, got the relics of the Buddha enshrined in the Swat valley.

Besides, Hindu iconography was greatly changed because of the Indo-

Greek influences. It is difficult to say how many Babylonian and

Iranian Gods were incorporated in Hindu religions. A few deities were

taken over by the Parthians and they were adopted by the Kushans.

But it is doubtful to say as to which of the Greek dieities were

incorporated in the Pantheon of Indian gods.

All told, the Greek influence was mostly felt in art (the Gangdhara

sculptures, which probably influenced the later day Mathura

sculptures) and in religion (gave a fillip to Mahayana Buddhism and

popularized the Bhakti aspect of religion as pioneered by the vasudeva

cult).

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 20 of 56

SUNGAS

The Sunga rule, extending a little over a century, is in interlude in the

history of India. There is nothing extraordinary about the political

events associated with the Sungas. The significance of their history, on

the other hand, primarily consists in the place they occupy in the social

and cultural history of India.

The founder of the dynasty, Pushyamitra Sunga, overthrew the

Mauryas; either in 187 B.C. or 184 B.C. After him there were nine

other rulers. Among them, Agnimitra, Vasumitra, Bhagvata and

Devabhumi were the prominent ones. The names of the first two were

associated with some events in political history, whereas the latter two

were known for their long rule, they being 32 and 10 years

respectively.

There is some controversy about the identity of Pushyamitra Sunga. It

was stated in a Sutra that he belonged to a family of teachers.

Patanjali claims that he was a brahminor the Bhardwaja gotra.

Ivyavadana stated that the Sungas were related to the Mauryas. A

Malavikagnimitram refers to them as brahmins belonging to Kashyap

gotra.

After the overthrow of Brihadrata, Pushyamitra Sunga waged a few

wars to consolidate his position. Evidence shows that Pushyamitra

Sunga defeated the Yavanas. This is confirmed by Patanjali's

Mahabashva. And the claim made in the Hathigumpha inscription that

Kharavela of Kalinga defeated Pushyamitra Sunga cannot be sustained

because Kharavela ruled in the second half of the first century B.C.

Later, Vasumitra, the grandson of Pushyamitra Sunga, defeated the

Yavanas. This is confirmed by the Malavikaganimtiram and gargi

Samhita. Both Agnimmitra and Veerasena fought against Vidarbha rule

of the Sungas ended C. 75 B.C.

Some scholars regard that the establishment of Sunga dynasty ws

symbolic of the brahminical reaction to the Mauryan bias towards

Buddhism. Pushyamitra Sunga performed the vedic sacrifices of

asvamedha, and the others like aginstoma, Rajasuya and vajpeiya. But

some facts of his region clearly show that he did not persecute

Buddhists. The claim of Divyavandana, that Pushyamitra Sunga

destroyed 84,000 Buddhist stupas and slaughtered srameans, has no

corroborative evidence. Interestingly, the sculptured stone gateway

and the massive stone railing aroused Sanchi stupa were executed

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 21 of 56

during the time of Pushyamitra Sunga. Also the Bharhut stupa and the

sculpture relating to Jataka stories around it came into existence

during the same period. One of the donors of Bharhut stupa was

Champadevi wife of the Idisha King, who was a worshipper of Vishnu.

This fact bears testimony to the high degree of tolerance prevailing

during the period. (And some minor works of Sunga art are to be

found at Mathura, Kausambi and Sarnath).

It at all there was anyting like persecution of Buddhists during the

days of Pushyamitra Sunga, it could be in the context of Menander's

invasion. May be, the Buddhists of India welcomed the invasion of

Menander' and this might have resulted in Pushyamitra Sunga wrath

falling on the Buddhists. Or, may be withdrawal of royal patronage

with the coming of the Sungas apparently enraged the Buddhists and

thus the Buddhists writers present an exaggerated account of their

troubles.

The importance of the Sungas, therefore, was primarily in the context

of cultural and social development. In the social field, the emergence

of Hinduism had a wide impact. The Sungas attempted to revive the

caste system with the social supremacy of the brahmins. This is more

than evident in the work of Manu (Manusmriti) wherein he reassures

the position of the brahmins in the fourfold society. Even then, the

most significant development of the Sunga era was marked by various

adjustment and adaptations leading to the emergence of mixed castes

and the assimilation of the foreigners in India society. Thus we notice

that Brahminism gradually transformed itself in a direction towards

Hinduism.

In the field of literature Sanskrit gradually gained ascendancy and

became the language of the court. Patanjali was patronized by

Pushyamitra Sunga and he was the second great grammarian of

Sanskrit. Patanjali refers to a Sanskrit poet, Varauchi, who wrote in

the Kavya style and which was later perfected by Kalidasa. Some

Buddhist works of this age were written in Sanskrit.

In the field of art, there was immediate reaction against the Buddhist

era of the Mauryas. Nevertheless, there were certain differences. The

Sunga art reflects more of the mind, culture, tradition and ideology

than what the Mauryan art did. During the Sunga period, stone

replaced wood in the railings and the gateways of the Buddhist stupas

as noticed at Bharhut and Sanchi. Bharhut stupa is replete with

sculptures - apart from floral designs, animal, figures, Yakshas and

human figures. Even the stone railing around the Sanchi Stupa is in

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 22 of 56

rich belief work. This age definitely witnessed the increasing use of

symbols and human figures in architecture. Besides, the Sungas art is

a manifestation of popular artistic genious - the artistic activity was

because of the initiative of individuals, corporation or villages. A part

of the gateway of Sanchi was constructed by the artisans of Vidisha.

Even temple building began in this period. A Vishnu temple was build

near Vidisha. There was an increase in the construction of rock-cut

temple as noticed in the Chaitya Hall. In the temples and household

worship we find the idols of Shiva and Vishnu.

All told the importance of the sunga dynasty lies in the restoration of

Real politik while abandoning the asokan approach. In the cultural field

the beginnings as well as accomplishments in sculpture and

architecture are of tremendous significance. In the field of religion too

they not only revived the earlier tradition but also gave an impetus to

new approaches combative towards the heterodox sects the cult of

katakana the god of war the resurgence of Bhagvata cult and the

supremacy of Vasudeva in the Hindu pantheon.

KUSHANS

In the post-Mauryan era, central Asia and north-western India

witnessed hectic and shifting political scenes. The Great Yuehi-chi

driven out of fertile lend in Western china migrated towards the Aral

Sea. There they encountered the Sakas near Syr Darya river and

evicted them. The Great Yuehi-Chi tribes settled in the valley of Oxus

and with the occupation of the Bactrian lands the great hordes were

divided into five principalities. A century later the Kushan section or

sect of Yuehi-Chi attained predominance over the otheres. Their leader

was Kadphises. Thus began the history of Kushans.

The unique geographical position of the Kushans empire made it a

colossus astride on the spine of Asia uniting the Greco-Roman

civilization in the west the Chinese civilization in the east and Indian

civilisation in the south-east.

The leader of the Kushans was kadphises and his rule probably began

in 40 A.D. He attacked the regions south of Hindu Kush, conquered

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 23 of 56

Kabul and annexed Gandhara including the kingdom of Taxila.

Kadphises died in 77 A.D. or 78 A.D. By then the Kushans had

supplanted the princes belonging to the Indo-Greek saka and Indo-

Parthian communities along the frontiers of India. The successor of

kadphises was Vima-Kadphses. He conquered large parts of norther

India. His coins show that his authority extended as far as Banaras

and as well as the Indus basin. In all likelihood his power extended as

far as Narbada and the Saka satraps in Malwa and Western India

acknowledged his sovereignty.

By that time the Chinese reasserted their authority in the north and

this led to a collusion with the Kushans. The Chinese general pan-chao

conquered Chinese Turkistan and established the Chinese authority in

parthia that is on the territory south of the Caspian sea.

These advances frightened the Kushans. In 87 AD Kadphises II,

claimed the hand of a Chiese princes, an acknowledgement of his

equality with the son of Heaven. The proposal was rejected and

Kadphises, dispatched a large army, But the army was decimated

because of the difficult terrain. And it was easily defeated by the

Chinese. The Kushan ruler was compelled to pay tribute the China and

the Chinese records so that the Kushans continued to send missions to

Cnina till the close of the century. Rossibly the reign of Kadphises II

ended C. 110 A.D.

The next ruler, Kanishka probably belonged to the little Yuehi-chi

section of the horde. His capital was Purushapura and here he erected

a large number of Buddhist buildings. In his early years he annexed

Kashmir and consolidated his rule in the Indus and the Gangetic basin.

His army crossed the Pamirs and inflicted a defeat on the Chinese. The

chief of Khotan, Yarkand and the Ksshgar were made to pay tribute.

Tradition states that while Kanishka was on his return from the

Chinese Turkistan, he was sothered to death by his officers who had

got weary of his campaigns. Most of his time was spent on waging

wars.

A large number of inscriptions were incised during the times of

Kanishka and his successor. According to evidence, Kanishka became

an active partron of the Buddhist Church during the later part of his

reign. Althouth the Buddhist records gloat over this fact and regard

him as the second Asoka, his coins prove that he honoured a medley

of gods - zoroastrain, Greek, Mitraic, and Indian. The prominent Indian

duty on the coins was Shiva. The peculiar assembly of deities by the

Kushans offers a great deal of speculation. May be Kansihka follwed a

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 24 of 56

loose from of Zorostrianism and freely venerated the deities of other

greeds.

Also, Kanishka covened a council of Buddhist theologians to settle

disputes relating to Buddhist faith and practices. The conclusions of

this council were engraved on copper sheets and preserved in the

stupa of the capital. The delgates to the council primarily belonged to

the Hinayana sect.

The Buddhism of this period was definitely a lax one. The Mahayana

sect was popular. But early Buddhism was an India product and was

based on the Indian ideas of rebirth, transmigration of souls and the

blessedness of escape from the pains of being. This Buddhism was

supported by a practical system of ethics inculcating a stoic devotion

to duty for its own sake. Such a teaching needed fundamental changes

to attract the sturdy mountaineer, the nomad horseman and the

Helloe rized Alexandrian. The veneration for a dead teacher passed

into a worship of living seviour.

Soon the Kushan power declined. Within the Kingdom, harm was done

to the Kushan Empire by the Nagas and Yaudheyas. A Naga ruler

probably performed ten ashvamedha sacrifices. Apart from these two

communities, a few other tribes also, like the Malavas and the

Kunindas, probably regained their importance at the expense of the

Kushan empire.

Apart from the weaknesses to the successors of Kanishka,

developments in the Persia influenced the history of North western

India. The Parthians were overthrown byArdashir in 226 A.D. who

established theSassanian dynasty. His successors annxed Peshawar

and Taxila during the middle of the 3rd century. And Kushan kings in

the north-west became the vassals of the Sasssanians. The successors

of Kanishka, as established today, are the following : Vashiska (102-

106), Hyvishka (106-138), and Vasudeva (c. 152-176). The history

after this period is extremely vague. Over the ruins of the empire, in

Central Asia and the west, rose the Sassanian empire of Persia and in

India. The Gupta empire.

Speaking in general about the achievement of the Kushans, the first is

the economic prosperity. As the Kushan empire was situated in a

crucial geographical region. There was brisk trade. Moreover, the very

area covered by the Kushan empire helped the flow of trade between

the east and the west. Some trade routes which came into existence in

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 25 of 56

this period continued to serve the future also. Gold coins of great

complexity were issued by the Kushans.

These coins speak of the prosperity of the people. The coins of

Kanishka usually show the figure of Kanishka standing and sacrificing

at altar, and on the obverse, deities belonging to various religions. The

coins of the Kushans also show that the Kushans were in contact with

the Romans - the weight of the Kushan coins has certain similarities

with the Roman coins. According to the author of the Periplus god and

silver species were imported at Barygaza (Broach).

As regards art and literature, we have to state that their greatest

contribution was the Gandhara art. It was in this period that the stone

images of the Buddha and the Bodhisattavas were craved out. The

chief of quality of this art is the blending of Buddhist subjects with

Greek forms. Images of the Buddha appear in the likeness of Apollo,

and theYakshakubera is posed in the fasino of Zeus. The imprint of this

school of art is still to be found in Mathura and Amarvati. Indeed, the

carving of images and the building of temples was not neglected in

earlier days, but under the Kushans they attained a refinement. The

Chaitya built at Peshawar was as high as four storeys. Fa-Hien,

passing through Gandhara, during the fifth century, praised the

images of the Buddha, Bodhisattavas and numerous other deities. The

early rulers fostered the Hellenistic art of Gandhara and also the

Bhikshu Bela, and from this place artistic products were sent to

Sarasvati and Sarnath. Kanishka was a great builder - tower at

Peshawar, a new city in Taxila, a town in Kashmir and fine buildings

and sculptures at Mathura. It was at the last place a portrait stature of

Kanishka has been found but its head is not there. Further, the dieengravers

employed by the Kushans were far from negligible. A special

note is to be taken of coinage. The Kushan coins became the

prototypes for many varieities of coins of Yadheyas, the imperial

Guptas, some kings of Nepa and several Kings of Chedi. Eminent

Buddhist writers - Nagajuna, Asvaghosha and Vasumitra were the

names associated with Kanishka. The first was a poet, musician,

scholar and a zealous Buddhist monk. Charaka was the court physician

of Kanishka.

The next thing to be noted about the Kushana is their religion. In all

likelihood, missionaries propagated Buddhism in central Asia and China

in this period. Possibly, it was during the time of Kanishka that

Mahayana Buddhism was sanctified. The fourth Buddhist council that

was summoned by Kanishka canonized the doctrines of Hinayana and

Mahayana. The deliberations of the conference were engraved on

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 26 of 56

sheets of copper and were sealed and deposited in a stupa, but they

have not been found so far. But to regard Kanishka as the founder

patron of the Mahayana sect, which came into existence under the

Kushans, is a disputable point. Even though many scholars regard

Kanishka as the second Asoka some writers do not agree with this

view. In addition to these things, we must mention that the Kushana

kings patronized all kinds of religions, including Hinduism. Kanishka

was definitely and eclectic monarch as he honored a medley of gods

belonging to the Greek, Zoroastrian and Hindu faiths. Not only

Buddhism flourished under the Kushanas but there were definitely

stirrings of Hinduism. Many brahminical sects started merging. Along

with religion, Sanskrit language received an impetus. In a way the

Kushan age constituted the prelude to the Gupta age.

In this ammner, the services rendered by the Kushanas are

commendable. A mere evaluation of the personality of Kanishka alone

would not help us to estimate the importance of the Kushanas as the

empire lasted for three centuries. To a certain extent, the prosperious

time of peace during the Gupta period was directly due to the Kushans

undertaking the unconscious role of the shield and buckler of Indian

civiliszation and culture. The Kushan state was a buffer between the

Aryan civilization and the nomadic hordes in central Asia who from

time to time, had overrun the civilized worlds with the sweep of

avalanches. It was also responsible for the exchange of ideas and

goods between different civilization because of the peculiar

geographical position occupied by the Kushanas a clearing house for

the ideas and goods of different civilization.

Andhra Satavahanas

ORIGIN :

(a) Aitrareya Brahmana puts the Adhras beyond the pale of Aryanism.

(b) Nasik Prasasti lays claim to Gautmi as a brahamana.

(c) Puranas called them their services to Aryanism they were -

admitted to the Aryan folk after their services to Arynanism - there is

a reference to them in the Asoka inscriptions as well as by

Megasthenes.

(d) Some call them Brahmins - some, mixed Brahmins of Naga origin,

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 27 of 56

aqnd some, protectors of Brahmins,

(e) Numismatic evidence points to the origin in Western Deccan and

Madhya Pradesh. Epigraphic and literary evidence points to their

western origin - the figure of the founder of the dynasty is found in

paition in western Deccan.

(f) Epigraphic evidence refers to them as Satavahanas, not as

Andhras.

(g) Possibly, Andhra is the Tribal name : Satavahana, the dynastic

name, and satakarni, the Surname.

SOURCES :

(a) Puranas - mention 30 kings,.

(b) Aitrareya Brahmina.

(c) Literary sources -- Gunadhya's Brihatkatha. And Leelavati, which

deals with the military exploits of Hala.

(d) Nasik inscription of Gautami Balsari.

(e) Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela for inferring the date of the

first ruler.

(f) Sanchi inscription extent of the Satavahanas kingdom till Malwa.

CHORONOLOGY:

(a) The founder war one Simukha - probably the first century B.C. -

supplanted the lingering Sunga and Kanva rulers - rule of the dynasty

was for 300 years. Simuka was succeed by Krishna or Kanha.

(b) The next known king was Satakarni - the kingdom expanded -

probably defeated by Kharavela - performed Ashvamedha Pratishthana

was the capital - confusion after him. Kshaharatas or sakas occupied

parts of Maharashtra.

(c) Hala is the 17th in the list of Puranas - his book is saptasataka -

deals with both erortic and philosophical themes. Gundhaya's

Brihatkatha deals with the rivalry between Prikrit and Sanskrit.

(d) Beginning from 25 A.D. to 75 A.D. there was confusion - saka

eruption.

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 28 of 56

(e) The greatest ruler was Gautamiputra Satakarni. He was the 23rd

according to Pupranas - around 72 A.D. the Nasik inscription of his

mother talks of his being the destroyer of Sakas, Yavanas and

Kshaharata - also says that he crushed the pride of Kshatrias - overran

konan, Saurashtra, Bihar and Malva. A Philanthropist, he maintained

Arya Dharma - put an end to Varna - Sankara - some regard him to be

Vikramaditya. Built the city of Benakataka and assumed the titles of

Raja Raja and Svamin.

(f) The next known ruler was Pulumayi II around 96 A.D. - first ruled

Andhra country - Vaijyanti and Amaravati famous cities - Satavahanas

a naval power - probably overseas colonisation - large number of

inscription.

(g) The next know ruler was Vasishtiputra Batakarni of sri Pulumayi -

married the daughter of Rudradaman, a Saka ruler -- however

Rudradaman twice defeated him. Also, Sri Pulumayi lost to Chastana,

son of Bhosmotika.

(h) Next known ruler was Yajna Sri Satakarni - around 160 A.D. -

Malva, Kathiawad and North Konkan - inscription found in Konkan and

Krishna - coints found in Gujarat and Kathiawad - defeated Kshatapas.

(i) After the declined Salankeyanas ruled over the Satavahana

territory.

IMPORTANCE :

(1) The Very area over which they ruled was important connecting link

between link between northern and southern India - Andhras were

instrumental in spreading Aryan culture to the south.

(2) Their colonizing activities spread to South-East Asia - influence of

Amaravati sculptures on South-East Asian sculptures.

(3) They did maintain contact between India and the Western world in

matters of trade.

(4) They were instrumental in curbing the penetration of Sakas further

into south.

(5) Some of the later southern dynastic like Ikshvakus, Kadambas,

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 29 of 56

Tarikutakas and Abhiras continued the Satavahan tradition and the

Pallsvas and the Chalukya claimed the tradition of Satavahanas.