ashok's dhamma

Asoka's Dhamma



NEED OF DHARMA


1. There was considered intellectual ferment around 600 B.C. healthy


rivalry was apparent among the number of sects such as the


Charvaks, Jains and Ajivikas, whose doctrines ranged from bare


materialism to determinism. This intellectual liveliness was reflected in


the elected interests of the Mauryan rulers. It was claimed by the


Jainas that Chandragupta was supporter and there is evidence that


Bindusara favoured the Ajivikas.


Thus, the Empire of Asoka was inhabited by peoples of many cultures


who were at many levels of development. The range of customs,


beliefs, affinities, antagonisms, tensions and harmonies were galore.


True, Magadha and the fringes of these areas. The north was in close


contact with the Hellenized culture of Afganisthan and Iran. The far


south was on the threshold of a creative efflorescence of Tamil culture.


The ruler of such as Empire required the perceptions were addressed


to the public at large. It is in these inscriptions that the king expounds


his ideas on dhamma.


It appears, Asoka aimed at creating an attitude of mind among his


subjects in which social behavior was accorded the highest place. The


Wherever you go, go with all your heart. 3/26


ideology of dhamma can be viewed as a focus of loyalty and as a point


of convergence for the then bewildering diversities of the Empire. In a


way, Asoka's dhamma was akin to the preamble in the constitution of


India.


2. A centralized monarchy demands oneness of feeling on the part of


its people. The ethics of the dhamma was intended to generate such a


feeling, comparable to the preamble of the Indian Constitution.


3. The Mauryan Society with its heterogeneous elements and with


economic, social and religious forces working against each other posed


the threat of disruption. Asoka, therefore, needed some binding factor


to allow the economic activity to proceed on an even keel and thereby


ensure the security of his state.


4. Also as the commercial classes gained economic importance and


resented the inferior social status as per the sanctions of the


Brahmins, they want over to Buddhism, which preached social


equality. Their support to the Mauryan king was very vital for the


peace and prosperity of the Empire. Asoka thought that he could


attract them by the propagation of this dhamma by weaning them


away from too closely identifying themselves with Buddhism.


5. Asoka felt that the aforesaid forces of contrary pulls would threaten


the peace of the realm not in the general interest of his Empire.


Asoka's dhamma therefore, was intended to serve a practical purpose.


The dhamma was not meant to be a religion but what behooves a man


of right feeling to do, or what man of sense would do. Such being the


nature of his dhamma, it is primarily an ethic of social conduct.


Asoka's Moral code is most concisely formulated in the second Minor


Rock Edict.


Thus saith His Majesty:


'Father and mother must be obeyed; similarly respect for living


creatures must be enforced, truth must be spoken. These are the


virtues of the law of Duty (or "Peity". Dhamma) which must be


practisd. Similarly, the teacher must be reverenced by the pupil, and


proper courtesy must be shown to relations.


This is the ancient standard of duty (or "Piety") - leads to length of


days and according to this men must act.


Wherever you go, go with all your heart. 4/26


The three obligations - of showing reverence, respecting animal life,


and telling the truth - are inculcated over and over again in the edicts.


Besides, it was meant for all - Buddhists, brahmins, Jains and Ajivikas,


In the way, it was the sara or the essence of the good principles of all


religions. Also, while pleading on behalf of his dhamma, Asoka


passionately appealed for toleration towards all religions and a


reverence for each other.


Had this dhamma got anything to do with Buddhist principles, Asoka


would have openly stated so in his edicts since he never southt to


hid/his support for Buddhism. For that matter, Asoka did not


incorporate any of the fundamental tenets of Buddhist faith such as


the Four Noble Truths, the chain of casualty the sacred eight-fold path,


and the Nirvana. The omissions, also with repeated reference to the


concept of svarga or heaven (a Hindu belief) show that his dhamma


cannot be identified with Buddhism.


Since Asoka's dhamma was not intended for the cause of Buddhims


during his dharama-yatras, he not only visited various places of


Buddhist importance, but also gave gifts to sramanas and Brahmins.


Most of all, even after entrusting the propagation of dhamma to the


Dharma Mahamatras, Asoka continued to style himself as the beloved


of the devas, a Hindu concept, since there were no Gods in Buddhism


at that time.


SUCCESS OF HIS DHARMA


Asoka specifically states that his missions were sent to various places


(Ceylon and various Western countries) and maintains that they were


all successful. It is difficult to accept this claim because historical


evidence shows that his officials overshot the mark. Definitely, there


was resentment against their way of doing things. It is known from


evidence that Asoka presumed that not only he was a seeker of truth


but also he did reach the truth. Such convictions are always harmful.


Most of all, it is important to note that there is no authentic proof that


his missions were a success. Significantly, none of Asoka's successors


continued the propagation of dhamma. Far worse is the fact that in the


later ages, his pillar inscriptions came to be misunderstood as symbols


of phallus.


Wherever you go, go with all your heart. 5/26


Answering A Question


There are a few ways of setting question on this topic:


(a) a brief history of Indo-Greeks and their impact on Indian


civilization.


(b) History of the foreigners who came in the wake of the fall of


the Roman empire and their impact on Indian civilization.


(c) A question on Kushans or Kanishka.


(d) Out of the southern kingdoms, the likely thins is the history


of Satavahanas and their impact.


(e) History of the significance of the Sungas and Kanvas.


While attempting questions on the aforesaid topics, candidates have


been facing two difficulties - (i) inadequate information because of not


memorizing the points, and (ii) and lack of information on special


aspects.


The candidates must be able to correct the first failing. Regarding the


second, the following are the principal heads.


"Kanishka - hardly belongs to the history of India". The questions


requires that first of all, you should show how Kanishka cannot be


regarded as a true Indian ruler. In the second part of the answer, you


should show that it is unfair to estimate him like that. And in the


conclusion, you should maintain that there is a considerable, amount


of truth in the given statement when you view history from a particular


standpoint. Regarding the first part of answer, the following are the


points :-


(i) his capital was located almost on the outer fringes of the


Indian sub-continent, i.e.- Peshawar,


(ii) his primary interest was to conquer areas in central Asia and


compete with the Chinese for suzerainty over that area -


historical evidence shows that the was smothered to death by


his soldiers who were tired of his exploits in Central Asia and his


battles with the Chinese;


Wherever you go, go with all your heart. 6/26


(iii) Kanishka did not identify himself with India since he vaguely


patronized Buddhism and Buddhism did not stay in India as a


religion of any significance;


(iv) The Gandhara School of art that came into existence during


his period remained an exotic tradition but not an Indian one,


since it was the tradition of Mathura school that finally became


the tradition of India, It is interesting to observe that a statue of


Kanishka has been found in Mathura, but its head is missing.


In the second part, mention the following points:--


Kanishka was an electic ruler just as Harhsa. Even Akbar's Din-I-Illahi


had electic traits. Aslo, it is interesting to note that some of his flowers


were adherents of Vaishnavism,


(i) to say that Buddhism has no place in the history of India is


too narrow a view. The influence of Buddhism was very wide and


very varied - the Buddhist monks created Ajanta frecos, the


Buddhist stupas and rock-cut chaityas influenced the later-day


Hindu architecture, the Sangha and the Bhikkus of Buddhism


later appeared as mutts and Sanyasis of Sankaracharya;


Buddhist writers enriched Sanskrit literature, and it was


Buddhism that compelled Hinduism to set its house in order.


(ii) It is unfair to treat him as a foreign ruler because of


Kanishka's capital being located in Peshawar. During the time of


Kanishka, new trade routes were opened towards West Asia and


Central Asia. Moreover, you should remember that the


happenings in Central Asia very often influenced the history of


India as remarked by a writer, a good understanding of Indian


history required, an understanding of the history of Central Asia.


(iii) Kanishka's patronage of learning was in tune with the


Patronage of learning by rulers of India like Samudragupta,


Chandragupta II, Amoghsvarsha and many others. Even the very


establishment of Kanishka's rule forced the Sakas to go south


ward which checkmated the amibitions of the Satavahanas.


Wherever you go, go with all your heart. 7/26


GANDHARA-MATHURA SCHOOL


Architecture in association with sculpture enjoyed the liberal patronage


of Kanishka. The style of this age is known as the Gnadhara. The


forms of Greek art were applied to Buddhist subjects with reasonable


amount of success. Images of the Buddha appeared in the likeness of


Apollo and Yaksha Kubera in the fashion of Zeus of the Greeks figures.


The drapery follows the Hellenistic models. This particulars style was


later transmitted to the Far-East through Chinese Turkista. The figure


of the Buddha in Chiana and Japan reveal distinct traces of the


Hellenistic modes of vogue at the court of Kanishka. Excavatations in


the Kotan (Chinese Turkestan) prove that it was the meeting place of


four civilization - Greek, Indian Iranian and Chinese.


The Kushan dynasty reached its apex-during the days of Kanishka,


who ruled over a flourishing nation strategically located to control to


gates to the rice network of trade crossing Asia. He even sent to an


envoy to the Emperor Trajan in Rome. Kanishka coins also reveal his


desire to live harmoniously with various people and religions within his


domain and beyond it. The elaborate parathion struck on the face of


his coins illustrates particularly the various religions, practised beyond


Gandhara-deities of Persia and Gods of Rome, Alaxandria and the


Hellanised orient and finally Shiva and Skand Kumar representing


brahminical India. The most remarkable image appeared on a gold


coin of Kanishka with standing figure of the Buddha.


The Gandhara sculptures have been found in the ruins of Taxila and in


various ancient sites in Afganishtan and in West Pakistan. They consist


mostly of the images of the Buddha and relief sculptures presenting


scenes from Buddhist texts. A number of Bodhisatava figures were


carved out. A figure of Gandhara shows the first sermon in the deer


park and the death of the Buddha. In all these figures there is a


realistic treatment of the body although it is draped. In these


sculptures there is a tendency to mould the human body in a realistic


manner paying great attention to accuracy and physical details


particularly in the presentation of muscles, moustaches, etc. Also the


representation of the thick bold fold lines forms a distinct


characteristic. Thus the Gandhara sculptures offer a striking contrast


to what has been discovered elsewhere in India.


The Gandhara art primarily depicted the Buddhist themes. The mother


of the Buddha resembles an Anthenian matron. Apollo-like face went


into the making of a Buddhist scene. Perhaps one of the loveliest


Gandhara sculptures reflecting a western subject is the figure of


Athena of Rome at Lahore. This sculpture is made out of blue-grave


Wherever you go, go with all your heart. 8/26


schist, which is found only in Gandhara. Although the technique of


Gandhara was essentially borrowed from Greece this particular art is


essentially Indian in spirit. It was employed to give expression to the


beliefs and practices of Bhddhists. Except for a few exceptions no


Greek art motif ahs been detected in the extanct specimens. The


Gandhara artist had the hand of a Greek, but the heart of an India.


There are large Gandhara stupas and monasteries survived as ruins at


Guldara in Afganishta. Later a votive stupa from loriyaan Tangai in


Gandhara has been found. If this is treated as the model of stupa in


Gandhara, the stupa has undergone great changes form great stupa at


Sanchi with its dome structure. It Gandhara the dome grew taller while


the square railing at its summit was enlarged and elaborated.


The greatest of all gandhara stupas as the one erected by Kanishka


outside the gates of modern Peshawar. Here also the stupa had not


survived but a reliquary (receptacle for relics) of Kanishka have been


found. One more such beliquary has been found at Bimaran in


Afganishtan.


This particular kind of Gandhara style continued at least till the 8th


century. It was along with Caravan route joning Taxila with Bactria


that one of the greatest monastic centers of Buddhism flourished. It is


the Bamiyan valley. The paintings in the valley reveal the motives


adopted from Sassanian fabric designs. The most spectacular creation


carved from the cliffs at Bamiyan are two colossal standing figures of


the Buddha, the largest of them began as high as 175 ft. in its stone


niche. It was finished with lime plaster. The image reflects the Gupta


style of early fifth century. Above the figure's head are fragments of


painting resembling those created by Gupta Buddhists at Ajanta.


Stucco was a popular technique in Gandhara art. A large number of


monasteries of Afganishtan are decorated with stucco images. Also


terracotta was used particularly among those who could not afford


stone sculpture. Terracotta figures were also used as decorations in


homes and as toys. All these provide interesting glimpses of the


dresses and fashions of the time.


Another revealing features is the presence of the images of Mother


Goddess as the worship of this goddess remain an essential religious


expression of the ordinary people. Buddhism, too came to be


associated with fertility cult and other popular religious cults. This


association in evident from the symbolic importance of the stupa and


the brackets with female figures as to be seen at Sanchi. As a matter


Wherever you go, go with all your heart. 9/26


of fact, these figures are sophisticated version of Mother Goddess


images.


Apart from Gandhara sculpture appeared at Sarnath near Benaras.


Mathura on the Yamuna and 'Amravati' and in Andhara Pradesh. They


all offer many examples of excellent sculpture. Each of them has a


distinct style. The most well-known are the elaborate base relief from


Amravati. Over many years this form was pursued. Most of it was


probably execute in Huvishka reign.


Simultaneously with the appearance of Buddha icon in Gandhara


Buddha portrait based upon Yaksha model began to be created in the


southern worship or Mathura. This place was a religious center even


before the arrival of the Kushans. Under standably the Jains continued


their activities along with those of the Buddhists in the Kushan and


Gupta periods. Some scholars believe that the Mathura worship


created a Buddha icon at least as early as Gandhara. Close to Mathura


is a sanctuary consisting of stone figures of Kushan rulers and deities.


Only mutilated aculptures are recovered. They are carved from sikri


sand-stone which is red mottle with cream spots. Two great


fragmentary protrains are of king Vima Kadphises and standing king


Kanishka. The garments worn by the Kushans can be know from these


two pieces.


Apart from creating the Buddha figures in the form of Bodhisattva the


Mathura school did produce the master-piece of Buddha in the mid 2nd


century. It is carved from the local sand-stone and it is a sitting figure.


Unlike the majority of statis Buddhas of Gandhara wropped in the


toga-like sanghatis this Buddha of a warmer clime is dressed as a true


Indian wearing transparent muslim garments. Such like transparent


textile being shown in a distinctive Mathura feature.


Some hold the view that the Buddha image was evolved independently


both at Mathura and Gandhara since there is a striking difference


between the two. The Gandhara school laid stress on accuracy of an


actomical details and physical beatury while that of Mathura strove to


impart sublime and spiritual impression to the figures. The first was


realistic and the other idealistic.


Others hold the view that the Hellenistic artists of Gandhara are the


earliest iconographers while others attributed to the sculptures of


Mathura. However, it is generally held that sculptures made by the


former have been reckoned as those belonging to the gandhara


school, while those made by the latter have bee ascribed to the


Wherever you go, go with all your heart. 10/26


Mathura school. It is probably that images came to the made and


almost simultaneously by both the schools. For the sculpturala and


iconographic features of their products differ in essential details.


Other Schools of Mauryan Period


Talking of other schools, Amravati school is the foremost. Its


sculptures shows a mastery of stone sculpture. The monuments at


Jaggayyapeta, Nagarjuna-konds and Amaravati are a classes by


themselves. The Andhra sculpture is generally known as Amaravati


schools. The stupas at Amaravati were made of a distinctive while


green marble probably it was began about the time of Christ, and


received its final carved faces and railings from about 150 A.D. to 200


A.D.


The nature art of Amaravati region is one of India's major and district


styles. A great number of graceful and elongated figures on the reliefs


imbue a sense of life and action that is unique in Indian art, not only


that each figures is animated by an internal vitality, the quality of the


surface further enhances the action of having a gluid quality reminding


one of water-worn pebbles.


One of the great stupa railing (probably of the 3rd century A.D.) show


the Buddha in Human form subduing a maddened elephant which had


been sent by his jealous cousin, Devadatta, to attack him.


In the field of sculpture a round figure appears belonging to the 3rd


century of A.D. It has a sure certain modulation of the flowing


sculptural volume and illusion of life, both hallmarks of the late


Amaravati school.


All the railings of the Amaravati stupa are made out of marble while


the dome itself is covered with slabs of the same material.


Unfortunately, the entire stupa is in ruins. Fragments of its railings


have been partly taken to the British Museum. The sculptures of the


stupa are quite different in style from those of northern India. The


figures of Amaravati have slim blithe features and they are


represented in most difficult poses and curves. However, as the scenes


are mostly over-crowded, the general effect is not very pleasing,


Indeed one characteristic and Amaravati is not disputed. The technical


excellence of sculptures in caving plants and flowers, particularly the


Wherever you go, go with all your heart. 11/26


lotuses at Amaravati are most admirably represented in this school.


The Buddha is mostly represented by symbols.


It is only recently excavations have revealed art works at


Nagarjunakonda. Slabs of limestone illustate scenes from the Buddha's


life.


Although the period under review is not known for architecture, there


came into existence beautiful temples and monasteries. The famous


tower of Kanishka of Peshawar was one of the wonders of Asia.


Unfortunately, no trace has been left behind.


There is only one class of buildings which merit some attention and


they are the caves hewn out of solid rocks. The caves of the Ashokan


period were plan chambers. But the caves of this period are adorned


with pillars and sculptures. Some were used as Chaityas or halls of


worship. There are many such chaitya caves at Nashik, Bhoja, Bedsa,


and Karle. The last one if regarded as the finest specimen because of


the beauty of the sculptures on the front wall. The chaitya of Karle is


the most impressive specimen of massive rock architecture.


Monasteries or Viaharas were excavated near the chaityas. We have


three viharas of this kind at Nasik.


Apart from these caves we know of several free standing pillars as the


Garuda-dhavaja of Heliedorus. This period of times is really famous for


independent for Buddhis structures. The most important of days


monuments are the stupas distributed over an area of 125 kilometers


all around Ellora. The most famous of them are at Amaravati and


Nagarjunakonda.


Wherever you go, go with all your heart. 12/26


THE GUPTA AGE


RISE AND FALL OF THE GUPTA EMPIRE


With the coming of the Buddha in early 4th century A.D. historical data


becomes more reliable. Starting from 4th century A.D. till the latter


half of the 6th century AD the facts of the day enable us to come to


firm conclusions.


How exactly the Guptas rose to power is difficult to be portrayed. With


the collapse of the Indo-Scythian or Kushan empire some tie during


the 3rd century A.D. the political pictures for northern Indian began to


transformed. In all likelihood, a large number of independent states


must have been formed. The lichachhavis of Vaisali of the days of


Buddha re-emerged again. It appears that they obtained possession of


Pataliputara and probably ruled as tributaries of the Kushans who had


their headquarters at Peshawar.


Very little is known of the early rulers of the Gupta dynasty. The


founder of the dynasty was Sri Gupta who bore the titles raja and


maharaja. Historically, as can be gleaned from a few Gupta


inscriptions, the history of dynasty really starts with king Ghatokacha,


the son of Sri Gupta. Unfortunately, the original borders of the Gupta


possession are not known. A number of historians feels that these


must have coincided with the borders of Magadha, while others include


parts of present day west Bengal as well. The vagueness of the


answers of this question is because of lack of precise epigraphic data.


One of the main written sources available is the writing of the Chinese


Pilgrim, T-Tsing.