taxila

Taxila.


To speak point wise, the first influence of the Greeks was on the divine

right theory of kingship. The Indo-Greeks took high sounding title e

like divine kings, sons of gods, etc. and maintained the myth of

Empire. Even before Indo-Greek rulers established themselves in India

the services of the Greeks were utilized. Ashoka appointed a Greek as

very viceroy of his province. And after the Indo-Greek period, a Greek,

during the period of Kushans, was entrusted with engineering work.

Talking of social life, a number of Greeks figure as donors in the

inscription of the Karle caves. The Greek mode of wearing hair and the

habit of eating in a lying posture came into vogue. Also when some of

the Indo-Greeks settled in India, they took to trade and they became

affluent merchants. Even Tamil literature refers to Greek ships

bringing cargoes, and the Greek section of Kaveripatnam was very

prosperous. And some of the Tamil kings kept Greek body-guards.

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 19 of 56

Regarding science, contemporary writers admit the greatness of the

Greek scientists. The Gargi Samhita admits that the Greeks were like

gods in science and they penetrated into India as far as Pataliputra.

Varahmihira, during the Gupta age was in the know of Greek science

and used a number of Greek technical terms in his works, It is also

argued that Charaka was influenced by the works of Hippocrates, the

father of Medicine, but there is not evidence to confirm this view. Thus

it is difficult to conjecture the extent to which ancient scientists of

India were influenced by the scientific knowledge of Greeks.

In the field of art, first the Indo-Greeks did contribute to die cutters'

art. They showed a remarkable skill in making the portraits of rulers.

Also the Greek kings adopt some of the indigenous methods of minting

the coins. Although Indians did not fully learn the fine art of diecutting,

the coins of Indian rulers were influenced by the Greeks.

Indian adopted the art of striking coins with two dies, the obverse and

the reverse. Secondly, the curious open air theatre that came into

being in this period was directly a Greek legacy. The term Yavanika for

curtain shows that Indian drama, at least on one point, was influenced

by the Greek model, Thridly, the Greek form of sculpture influenced

the Gandhara art of the Kushan period. The school began in the Kabul

valley where the Greek influence was the maximum. Accordingly tone

author, the terracottas of toys and plaques were all influenced by the

Greeks.

In the religious field too, the Greek influence was felt, as borne out by

Millinda-Panho and the Besnagar inscription. Legions of Greeks were

converted into Indian religions of the day. One Greek officer,

Theodorus, got the relics of the Buddha enshrined in the Swat valley.

Besides, Hindu iconography was greatly changed because of the Indo-

Greek influences. It is difficult to say how many Babylonian and

Iranian Gods were incorporated in Hindu religions. A few deities were

taken over by the Parthians and they were adopted by the Kushans.

But it is doubtful to say as to which of the Greek dieities were

incorporated in the Pantheon of Indian gods.

All told, the Greek influence was mostly felt in art (the Gangdhara

sculptures, which probably influenced the later day Mathura

sculptures) and in religion (gave a fillip to Mahayana Buddhism and

popularized the Bhakti aspect of religion as pioneered by the vasudeva

cult).

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 20 of 56

SUNGAS

The Sunga rule, extending a little over a century, is in interlude in the

history of India. There is nothing extraordinary about the political

events associated with the Sungas. The significance of their history, on

the other hand, primarily consists in the place they occupy in the social

and cultural history of India.

The founder of the dynasty, Pushyamitra Sunga, overthrew the

Mauryas; either in 187 B.C. or 184 B.C. After him there were nine

other rulers. Among them, Agnimitra, Vasumitra, Bhagvata and

Devabhumi were the prominent ones. The names of the first two were

associated with some events in political history, whereas the latter two

were known for their long rule, they being 32 and 10 years

respectively.

There is some controversy about the identity of Pushyamitra Sunga. It

was stated in a Sutra that he belonged to a family of teachers.

Patanjali claims that he was a brahminor the Bhardwaja gotra.

Ivyavadana stated that the Sungas were related to the Mauryas. A

Malavikagnimitram refers to them as brahmins belonging to Kashyap

gotra.

After the overthrow of Brihadrata, Pushyamitra Sunga waged a few

wars to consolidate his position. Evidence shows that Pushyamitra

Sunga defeated the Yavanas. This is confirmed by Patanjali's

Mahabashva. And the claim made in the Hathigumpha inscription that

Kharavela of Kalinga defeated Pushyamitra Sunga cannot be sustained

because Kharavela ruled in the second half of the first century B.C.

Later, Vasumitra, the grandson of Pushyamitra Sunga, defeated the

Yavanas. This is confirmed by the Malavikaganimtiram and gargi

Samhita. Both Agnimmitra and Veerasena fought against Vidarbha rule

of the Sungas ended C. 75 B.C.

Some scholars regard that the establishment of Sunga dynasty ws

symbolic of the brahminical reaction to the Mauryan bias towards

Buddhism. Pushyamitra Sunga performed the vedic sacrifices of

asvamedha, and the others like aginstoma, Rajasuya and vajpeiya. But

some facts of his region clearly show that he did not persecute

Buddhists. The claim of Divyavandana, that Pushyamitra Sunga

destroyed 84,000 Buddhist stupas and slaughtered srameans, has no

corroborative evidence. Interestingly, the sculptured stone gateway

and the massive stone railing aroused Sanchi stupa were executed

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 21 of 56

during the time of Pushyamitra Sunga. Also the Bharhut stupa and the

sculpture relating to Jataka stories around it came into existence

during the same period. One of the donors of Bharhut stupa was

Champadevi wife of the Idisha King, who was a worshipper of Vishnu.

This fact bears testimony to the high degree of tolerance prevailing

during the period. (And some minor works of Sunga art are to be

found at Mathura, Kausambi and Sarnath).

It at all there was anyting like persecution of Buddhists during the

days of Pushyamitra Sunga, it could be in the context of Menander's

invasion. May be, the Buddhists of India welcomed the invasion of

Menander' and this might have resulted in Pushyamitra Sunga wrath

falling on the Buddhists. Or, may be withdrawal of royal patronage

with the coming of the Sungas apparently enraged the Buddhists and

thus the Buddhists writers present an exaggerated account of their

troubles.

The importance of the Sungas, therefore, was primarily in the context

of cultural and social development. In the social field, the emergence

of Hinduism had a wide impact. The Sungas attempted to revive the

caste system with the social supremacy of the brahmins. This is more

than evident in the work of Manu (Manusmriti) wherein he reassures

the position of the brahmins in the fourfold society. Even then, the

most significant development of the Sunga era was marked by various

adjustment and adaptations leading to the emergence of mixed castes

and the assimilation of the foreigners in India society. Thus we notice

that Brahminism gradually transformed itself in a direction towards

Hinduism.

In the field of literature Sanskrit gradually gained ascendancy and

became the language of the court. Patanjali was patronized by

Pushyamitra Sunga and he was the second great grammarian of

Sanskrit. Patanjali refers to a Sanskrit poet, Varauchi, who wrote in

the Kavya style and which was later perfected by Kalidasa. Some

Buddhist works of this age were written in Sanskrit.

In the field of art, there was immediate reaction against the Buddhist

era of the Mauryas. Nevertheless, there were certain differences. The

Sunga art reflects more of the mind, culture, tradition and ideology

than what the Mauryan art did. During the Sunga period, stone

replaced wood in the railings and the gateways of the Buddhist stupas

as noticed at Bharhut and Sanchi. Bharhut stupa is replete with

sculptures - apart from floral designs, animal, figures, Yakshas and

human figures. Even the stone railing around the Sanchi Stupa is in

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 22 of 56

rich belief work. This age definitely witnessed the increasing use of

symbols and human figures in architecture. Besides, the Sungas art is

a manifestation of popular artistic genious - the artistic activity was

because of the initiative of individuals, corporation or villages. A part

of the gateway of Sanchi was constructed by the artisans of Vidisha.

Even temple building began in this period. A Vishnu temple was build

near Vidisha. There was an increase in the construction of rock-cut

temple as noticed in the Chaitya Hall. In the temples and household

worship we find the idols of Shiva and Vishnu.

All told the importance of the sunga dynasty lies in the restoration of

Real politik while abandoning the asokan approach. In the cultural field

the beginnings as well as accomplishments in sculpture and

architecture are of tremendous significance. In the field of religion too

they not only revived the earlier tradition but also gave an impetus to

new approaches combative towards the heterodox sects the cult of

katakana the god of war the resurgence of Bhagvata cult and the

supremacy of Vasudeva in the Hindu pantheon.

KUSHANS

In the post-Mauryan era, central Asia and north-western India

witnessed hectic and shifting political scenes. The Great Yuehi-chi

driven out of fertile lend in Western china migrated towards the Aral

Sea. There they encountered the Sakas near Syr Darya river and

evicted them. The Great Yuehi-Chi tribes settled in the valley of Oxus

and with the occupation of the Bactrian lands the great hordes were

divided into five principalities. A century later the Kushan section or

sect of Yuehi-Chi attained predominance over the otheres. Their leader

was Kadphises. Thus began the history of Kushans.

The unique geographical position of the Kushans empire made it a

colossus astride on the spine of Asia uniting the Greco-Roman

civilization in the west the Chinese civilization in the east and Indian

civilisation in the south-east.

The leader of the Kushans was kadphises and his rule probably began

in 40 A.D. He attacked the regions south of Hindu Kush, conquered

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 23 of 56

Kabul and annexed Gandhara including the kingdom of Taxila.

Kadphises died in 77 A.D. or 78 A.D. By then the Kushans had

supplanted the princes belonging to the Indo-Greek saka and Indo-

Parthian communities along the frontiers of India. The successor of

kadphises was Vima-Kadphses. He conquered large parts of norther

India. His coins show that his authority extended as far as Banaras

and as well as the Indus basin. In all likelihood his power extended as

far as Narbada and the Saka satraps in Malwa and Western India

acknowledged his sovereignty.

By that time the Chinese reasserted their authority in the north and

this led to a collusion with the Kushans. The Chinese general pan-chao

conquered Chinese Turkistan and established the Chinese authority in

parthia that is on the territory south of the Caspian sea.

These advances frightened the Kushans. In 87 AD Kadphises II,

claimed the hand of a Chiese princes, an acknowledgement of his

equality with the son of Heaven. The proposal was rejected and

Kadphises, dispatched a large army, But the army was decimated

because of the difficult terrain. And it was easily defeated by the

Chinese. The Kushan ruler was compelled to pay tribute the China and

the Chinese records so that the Kushans continued to send missions to

Cnina till the close of the century. Rossibly the reign of Kadphises II

ended C. 110 A.D.

The next ruler, Kanishka probably belonged to the little Yuehi-chi

section of the horde. His capital was Purushapura and here he erected

a large number of Buddhist buildings. In his early years he annexed

Kashmir and consolidated his rule in the Indus and the Gangetic basin.

His army crossed the Pamirs and inflicted a defeat on the Chinese. The

chief of Khotan, Yarkand and the Ksshgar were made to pay tribute.

Tradition states that while Kanishka was on his return from the

Chinese Turkistan, he was sothered to death by his officers who had

got weary of his campaigns. Most of his time was spent on waging

wars.

A large number of inscriptions were incised during the times of

Kanishka and his successor. According to evidence, Kanishka became

an active partron of the Buddhist Church during the later part of his

reign. Althouth the Buddhist records gloat over this fact and regard

him as the second Asoka, his coins prove that he honoured a medley

of gods - zoroastrain, Greek, Mitraic, and Indian. The prominent Indian

duty on the coins was Shiva. The peculiar assembly of deities by the

Kushans offers a great deal of speculation. May be Kansihka follwed a

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 24 of 56

loose from of Zorostrianism and freely venerated the deities of other

greeds.

Also, Kanishka covened a council of Buddhist theologians to settle

disputes relating to Buddhist faith and practices. The conclusions of

this council were engraved on copper sheets and preserved in the

stupa of the capital. The delgates to the council primarily belonged to

the Hinayana sect.

The Buddhism of this period was definitely a lax one. The Mahayana

sect was popular. But early Buddhism was an India product and was

based on the Indian ideas of rebirth, transmigration of souls and the

blessedness of escape from the pains of being. This Buddhism was

supported by a practical system of ethics inculcating a stoic devotion

to duty for its own sake. Such a teaching needed fundamental changes

to attract the sturdy mountaineer, the nomad horseman and the

Helloe rized Alexandrian. The veneration for a dead teacher passed

into a worship of living seviour.

Soon the Kushan power declined. Within the Kingdom, harm was done

to the Kushan Empire by the Nagas and Yaudheyas. A Naga ruler

probably performed ten ashvamedha sacrifices. Apart from these two

communities, a few other tribes also, like the Malavas and the

Kunindas, probably regained their importance at the expense of the

Kushan empire.

Apart from the weaknesses to the successors of Kanishka,

developments in the Persia influenced the history of North western

India. The Parthians were overthrown byArdashir in 226 A.D. who

established theSassanian dynasty. His successors annxed Peshawar

and Taxila during the middle of the 3rd century. And Kushan kings in

the north-west became the vassals of the Sasssanians. The successors

of Kanishka, as established today, are the following : Vashiska (102-

106), Hyvishka (106-138), and Vasudeva (c. 152-176). The history

after this period is extremely vague. Over the ruins of the empire, in

Central Asia and the west, rose the Sassanian empire of Persia and in

India. The Gupta empire.

Speaking in general about the achievement of the Kushans, the first is

the economic prosperity. As the Kushan empire was situated in a

crucial geographical region. There was brisk trade. Moreover, the very

area covered by the Kushan empire helped the flow of trade between

the east and the west. Some trade routes which came into existence in

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 25 of 56

this period continued to serve the future also. Gold coins of great

complexity were issued by the Kushans.

These coins speak of the prosperity of the people. The coins of

Kanishka usually show the figure of Kanishka standing and sacrificing

at altar, and on the obverse, deities belonging to various religions. The

coins of the Kushans also show that the Kushans were in contact with

the Romans - the weight of the Kushan coins has certain similarities

with the Roman coins. According to the author of the Periplus god and

silver species were imported at Barygaza (Broach).

As regards art and literature, we have to state that their greatest

contribution was the Gandhara art. It was in this period that the stone

images of the Buddha and the Bodhisattavas were craved out. The

chief of quality of this art is the blending of Buddhist subjects with

Greek forms. Images of the Buddha appear in the likeness of Apollo,

and theYakshakubera is posed in the fasino of Zeus. The imprint of this

school of art is still to be found in Mathura and Amarvati. Indeed, the

carving of images and the building of temples was not neglected in

earlier days, but under the Kushans they attained a refinement. The

Chaitya built at Peshawar was as high as four storeys. Fa-Hien,

passing through Gandhara, during the fifth century, praised the

images of the Buddha, Bodhisattavas and numerous other deities. The

early rulers fostered the Hellenistic art of Gandhara and also the

Bhikshu Bela, and from this place artistic products were sent to

Sarasvati and Sarnath. Kanishka was a great builder - tower at

Peshawar, a new city in Taxila, a town in Kashmir and fine buildings

and sculptures at Mathura. It was at the last place a portrait stature of

Kanishka has been found but its head is not there. Further, the dieengravers

employed by the Kushans were far from negligible. A special

note is to be taken of coinage. The Kushan coins became the

prototypes for many varieities of coins of Yadheyas, the imperial

Guptas, some kings of Nepa and several Kings of Chedi. Eminent

Buddhist writers - Nagajuna, Asvaghosha and Vasumitra were the

names associated with Kanishka. The first was a poet, musician,

scholar and a zealous Buddhist monk. Charaka was the court physician

of Kanishka.

The next thing to be noted about the Kushana is their religion. In all

likelihood, missionaries propagated Buddhism in central Asia and China

in this period. Possibly, it was during the time of Kanishka that

Mahayana Buddhism was sanctified. The fourth Buddhist council that

was summoned by Kanishka canonized the doctrines of Hinayana and

Mahayana. The deliberations of the conference were engraved on

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 26 of 56

sheets of copper and were sealed and deposited in a stupa, but they

have not been found so far. But to regard Kanishka as the founder

patron of the Mahayana sect, which came into existence under the

Kushans, is a disputable point. Even though many scholars regard

Kanishka as the second Asoka some writers do not agree with this

view. In addition to these things, we must mention that the Kushana

kings patronized all kinds of religions, including Hinduism. Kanishka

was definitely and eclectic monarch as he honored a medley of gods

belonging to the Greek, Zoroastrian and Hindu faiths. Not only

Buddhism flourished under the Kushanas but there were definitely

stirrings of Hinduism. Many brahminical sects started merging. Along

with religion, Sanskrit language received an impetus. In a way the

Kushan age constituted the prelude to the Gupta age.

In this ammner, the services rendered by the Kushanas are

commendable. A mere evaluation of the personality of Kanishka alone

would not help us to estimate the importance of the Kushanas as the

empire lasted for three centuries. To a certain extent, the prosperious

time of peace during the Gupta period was directly due to the Kushans

undertaking the unconscious role of the shield and buckler of Indian

civiliszation and culture. The Kushan state was a buffer between the

Aryan civilization and the nomadic hordes in central Asia who from

time to time, had overrun the civilized worlds with the sweep of

avalanches. It was also responsible for the exchange of ideas and

goods between different civilization because of the peculiar

geographical position occupied by the Kushanas a clearing house for

the ideas and goods of different civilization.

Andhra Satavahanas

ORIGIN :

(a) Aitrareya Brahmana puts the Adhras beyond the pale of Aryanism.

(b) Nasik Prasasti lays claim to Gautmi as a brahamana.

(c) Puranas called them their services to Aryanism they were -

admitted to the Aryan folk after their services to Arynanism - there is

a reference to them in the Asoka inscriptions as well as by

Megasthenes.

(d) Some call them Brahmins - some, mixed Brahmins of Naga origin,

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 27 of 56

aqnd some, protectors of Brahmins,

(e) Numismatic evidence points to the origin in Western Deccan and

Madhya Pradesh. Epigraphic and literary evidence points to their

western origin - the figure of the founder of the dynasty is found in

paition in western Deccan.

(f) Epigraphic evidence refers to them as Satavahanas, not as

Andhras.

(g) Possibly, Andhra is the Tribal name : Satavahana, the dynastic

name, and satakarni, the Surname.

SOURCES :

(a) Puranas - mention 30 kings,.

(b) Aitrareya Brahmina.

(c) Literary sources -- Gunadhya's Brihatkatha. And Leelavati, which

deals with the military exploits of Hala.

(d) Nasik inscription of Gautami Balsari.

(e) Hathigumpha inscription of Kharavela for inferring the date of the

first ruler.

(f) Sanchi inscription extent of the Satavahanas kingdom till Malwa.

CHORONOLOGY:

(a) The founder war one Simukha - probably the first century B.C. -

supplanted the lingering Sunga and Kanva rulers - rule of the dynasty

was for 300 years. Simuka was succeed by Krishna or Kanha.

(b) The next known king was Satakarni - the kingdom expanded -

probably defeated by Kharavela - performed Ashvamedha Pratishthana

was the capital - confusion after him. Kshaharatas or sakas occupied

parts of Maharashtra.

(c) Hala is the 17th in the list of Puranas - his book is saptasataka -

deals with both erortic and philosophical themes. Gundhaya's

Brihatkatha deals with the rivalry between Prikrit and Sanskrit.

(d) Beginning from 25 A.D. to 75 A.D. there was confusion - saka

eruption.

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 28 of 56

(e) The greatest ruler was Gautamiputra Satakarni. He was the 23rd

according to Pupranas - around 72 A.D. the Nasik inscription of his

mother talks of his being the destroyer of Sakas, Yavanas and

Kshaharata - also says that he crushed the pride of Kshatrias - overran

konan, Saurashtra, Bihar and Malva. A Philanthropist, he maintained

Arya Dharma - put an end to Varna - Sankara - some regard him to be

Vikramaditya. Built the city of Benakataka and assumed the titles of

Raja Raja and Svamin.

(f) The next known ruler was Pulumayi II around 96 A.D. - first ruled

Andhra country - Vaijyanti and Amaravati famous cities - Satavahanas

a naval power - probably overseas colonisation - large number of

inscription.

(g) The next know ruler was Vasishtiputra Batakarni of sri Pulumayi -

married the daughter of Rudradaman, a Saka ruler -- however

Rudradaman twice defeated him. Also, Sri Pulumayi lost to Chastana,

son of Bhosmotika.

(h) Next known ruler was Yajna Sri Satakarni - around 160 A.D. -

Malva, Kathiawad and North Konkan - inscription found in Konkan and

Krishna - coints found in Gujarat and Kathiawad - defeated Kshatapas.

(i) After the declined Salankeyanas ruled over the Satavahana

territory.

IMPORTANCE :

(1) The Very area over which they ruled was important connecting link

between link between northern and southern India - Andhras were

instrumental in spreading Aryan culture to the south.

(2) Their colonizing activities spread to South-East Asia - influence of

Amaravati sculptures on South-East Asian sculptures.

(3) They did maintain contact between India and the Western world in

matters of trade.

(4) They were instrumental in curbing the penetration of Sakas further

into south.

(5) Some of the later southern dynastic like Ikshvakus, Kadambas,

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 29 of 56

Tarikutakas and Abhiras continued the Satavahan tradition and the

Pallsvas and the Chalukya claimed the tradition of Satavahanas.