satavahana

SATAVAHANA ACHIEVEMENTS


The government if the Satavahana kingdom was organized on the

traditional lines. The kingdom was divided into Janapadas, which were

further sub-divided into aharas. Each ahara was under an Amataya.

The basic unit of the ahara was the grama with the village headman

called gamika. Central control was maintained over the provices.

Princes were generally made viceroys. And the kings did not assume

high-sounding titles. They were expected to maintain dharma.

Taxation was not burden some. The state derived its income from

crown lands, court fees, fines and ordinary taxes on lands. The

extraordinary taxes of the Mauryan period were not imposed. In

general, Central control was not high because feudal traits emerged in

the Satavahana period. The feudal chiefs like maharathas

mahasenapatis and mahabhojas issued their own coins.

The area under the satavahanas in general witnessed considerable

prosperity. There was brisk trade. Broach was the most important port

and it had a vast and rich hinterland. Pratishthana produced cotton

cloth. Tagara and Ujjain produced muslin. The chief imports were

wines, copper, tin, lead and gold and silver coins. Another important

port was kalyan mentioned in the Perilus. The other ports were

Sopara, Goa and pigeon islands. Within the kingdom there were

important cities like Tagara, Prathishthana, Nasik, Junnar and

Dhanyakataka. Koddura and Chinnaganjam were the important ports

on the east. The general life led by the people was similar to the one

portrayed in Vatsayana's Kama-Sutra.

Evidence also shows that a good number of people emigrated from the

Deccan to colonize the regions in South-East Asia

The Satavahanas and Shiva were worshiped. Saptasataka reveals the

worship of many Hindu deities. Vaishnavasim and Shavism grew

popular. Gautamiputra-Satakarni claimed himself to be the protector

of brahmins. The Naisk prasasthi states that Varnashrama Dharmawas

maintained.

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Buddhism too was popular. Both the sakas and Satavahanas

encouraged Buddhism. Ushavadata mare several grants to Buddhist

monks. Some of these grants were renewed by Guatamiputra

Satakarni. Buddhist momuments and stupas came into existence at

Nasik, Vidisa, Bhattiprolu, Goli, Ghantasala and Amaravati. It was at

the last plece that most probably human figures were carved out for

the first time. And the stupa at this place had a marble railing with

relief sculptures. A vaijayanti merchant was responsible for enriching

Karle and Kanheri Buddhist caves. Merchants from Nasik contributed

to the caves at Vidisa and Bharhut. In brief cave architecture and

building of stupas witnessed certain development under the auspices

of the satavahanas; and the donations or the merchants belonging to

the guilds prove the commercial prosperity of the area.

Emcouraged by wealth the kings patronized literature and architecture.

Hala was an authority on the Puranas. He was the author of Sapta-

Sataka. It is said that Hala paid as much as 40 million pieces of gold

for four kavyas. Leelavati deals with the military campaigns of Hala.

The kings encouraged architecture. The five gateways at Sanchi the

rock-cut Chaity-halls of Bhaja, Karle, Nasik and Kanheri and the stupas

at Amaravati, Bhattiprolu, Goli and Ghantasala were built in this

period. The capitals of the pillars in Karle caves are elaborately

sculptured. The dome and the base of the Amaravati stupa is

elaborately sculptured. Jataka stories were incised on marble slabs.

The upper part of the dome is a beautiful floral design. It is generally

said that its construction began during the t8ime of Gautamiputra

Satakarni and was completed during the time of Yajna Sri Satakarni.

Most probably two Ajanta Frescoes (9th and 10th) came into existence

during this period.

The satavahanas weregreat excavators of cave temples and the

magnificent temples of Ellora and Ajanta were the continuation of the

Satavahana tradition to which all Middle Indian dynasties in succeeding

ages claimed historic relationship. The basic tradition in Middle India is

of the Satavahana empire. As in the north it is of the Mauryan. From

the point of view of historic continuity it is important to remember this

primary fact as up to quite recent times the traditions flowing from the

satavahanas were living factors in Indian history.

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Significance Of The Satavahanas

(1) It was the emergence of Vakataka power in the Vindhya area some

where about the middle of the third century that brought about the

downfall of the Satavahanas. But an empire so firely established in its

home domains does not break down with the fall of a dynasty. The

Rastrakutas and the Chalukyas in the Godavari valley and the Pallavas

in the south originally the viceroys of the Satavahanas, claimed

successtion to the empire with in their own territorial limits as the

Vakatakas claimed it to the north of the Vindhyas. The Gangas and the

Kadambas were also the inheritors of the tradition and as the

Vijayanagar emperors claimed in time to be Chalukya Chudamanis, or

the crest jewels of the Chalukya dynasty and as the great kings of

Gujarat equally claimed succession from the Chalukyas, the imperial

tradition of the Satavahanas may be said to have been carried forward

at least to the beginning of the seventeenth century.

(2) The rise of the Satavahanas signified that the economic revolution

of the Gangetic region was repeated allover India. Added to this

because of the peculiar geographical terrain of the Deccan peninsula a

number of small kingdoms came into existence but not any big empire.

(3) Since the Satavahanas had controlled part of the Deccan and part

of northern India, they acted as the couriers of Aryanism to southern

India.

(4) It is intriguing to note that the Satavahana inscriptions were

primarily in pali but not in Sanskrit indicating it look long time to

establish Sanskrit language as the language of the elite although

people professed Aryanism much earlier.

(5) The administrative structure of the Satavahana is a revealing one

because it was not a highly centralized administration and it conceded

the emergence of feudalism. Feudal chiefs like Mahara this

mahasenapatis and mahabhojas issued their own coins.

(6) The artistic excellence that was achieved under the aegis of the

Satavahanas had a tremendous significance. Buddhist mouments came

into existence at Nasik, Vidisha, Bhattiprolu, Goli, Ghantasala and

amaravati. Most probably human figure was first carved out at

Amaravati and Amaravati's sculptures influenced South-east Asian

sculptures.

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(7) Under the aegis of the Satavahanas trade was given a boost. The

important pores were Koddura and Chinnaganjam on the east and

Kalyan, Sopara, Goa and Pigeon islands on the West coast. And some

of the important commercial centers were Tagara, Pratishthana, Nasik,

Junnar and Dhanyakataka.

Saka-satavahana Conflict

1. There is controversy about the name 'Sakas'. Some hold the view

that they were probably. One branch of them was known as

kshabaratas. Some say Nahapana was a pahlava and Ghasmotika the

father of Chashtana was Scythian. It was from the Gupta period that

the name 'saka' came to be applied to this family of people.

2. The one reason that was responsible for the southward thrust of the

sakas was the Kushan pressure from the north.

3. To begin with they established themselves in western Rajputana,

Gujarat and Kathiawad. Then they took malva and even northern

Maharashtra from the Satavahanas. At one time they even got

southern Maharashtra as far as Vijayanti from the Satavahanas.

4. The earliest known king of the Kshaharatas, a branch of the Sakas,

was Bhumaka. He ruled over Gujarat, Kathiawad and north

Konkancoins belonging to him are found.

5. His successor was Nahapana-title Raja-numerous coins-advanced at

the expense of Satavahanas-this advance began five years before the

end of Nahapana's rule. After Nahapana defeated the Satavahana he

assumed the title of Maha Kshatrapa. A Jaina work mentions Broach as

the capital of Nahapana.

6. Ushavadata was the general and son-in-law of Nahapana and he

succeeded him as the Saka ruler. He took western deccan including

Malva. It is not known whether Paithan, the capital of Satavahanas

was lost or not. He defeated Satavahana rulers were Sundara

Satakarni, Chakora Satakarni and Siva sati.

It is interesting to note that Ushavadata following Puranic Hinduism

gve cows to brahmins - visited Pushiar - gave religious benefactions -

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also gave viallages to Buddhists - Saka country was divided into

districts.

7. It was Gautamiputra Satakarni who revived the glories of

Satavahanas. He defeated the successor of Nahapana, Ushavadata

was killed. Some say that he defeated Nahapana. Also a Jaina work

speaks of Nahapana's defeat and death at the hands of Satavahanas.

The coins of Nahapana were re-issued by Gautamiputra Satakarni.

Some land grants also confirm this victory. It is said that the

Satavahana king made preparations for 16 years to defeat the Sakas.

8. The coflict was re-opened during the days of Pulumayi II, the king

after Gautamiputra Satakarni, as well as, Sri Pulumayi.

9. After this Ghamotika appeared on the stage who ruled over

Kathiwad. His successor, Ghashtana also infliceted defeats on the

Satavahanas. Rudraman too defeated the Satavahanas. The victory of

Rudraman and Ghastana around 150 A.D. (cofirmed by Junagarh

inscription) mad the Patavahanas lose all their northern conquests.

Significance:-

(1) The conflict between the Sakas and Satavahanas was inevitable as

such conflicts were natural in feudal times. Probably the Sakas were

perforce dieven to expand southward because of the establishment of

Kushan empire. The Saka-Satavahana conflict was because of the

basic factors working in the political dynamic of the day.

(2) The Sakas issued coins of great artistic value. Gatuamiputra

Satakarni re-issued the coins of Nahapana. In other words, the Sakas

had a better artistic sense.

(3) Evidence shows that the Sakas introduced new ideas and

institutions in south-silver coins, free use of Sanskrit and Vigorour

patronage of Buddhists and brahmins. Kshaharatas used Khoreshthi -

alphabet of extreme north-west.

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Sanskrit

Sanskrit is a remote cousin of all the language of Europe ecepting the

Finnish, Hungarian, Turkish and basqe. Around 2000 B.C. an ancestral

group of dialects arose among the tribesmen of South Russia.

With Panini (probably 4th century B.C.) the Sanskrit language reached

its classical form. It developed a little thense forward except in its

vocabulary. The grammer of Panini, Asthadhyayi, pre-supposes the

work of may earlier grammarians. Latter grammars are mostly

commentaries on Panini, the chief being Mahabashya by Patanjali

(second century B.C.) and the Banaras-commentary of Jayaditya and

Vamana (seventh century A.D.).

It was from the time of Panini onwards that the language began to be

called Samskarta, perfected or refined, as opposed to Prakras

(natural), the popular dialects which had grown over time. In all

probability, Panini bsed his work on the languages as it was spoken in

the north west. Beginning as the lingua franca of the priestly class, it

gradually became that of the governing class also. The first important

dynasty to use Sanskrit was that of the Sakas of Ujjain and the

inscriptions of Rudraman at Girnar. Otherwise, the Maurya and the

other important dynasty till the Guptas used Prakrit for their official

pronouncements.

The Language of the Rig Veda was already archaic when the hymns

were composed and the ordinary Aryan spoke a sompler tongue, moer

closely akin to classical Sanskrit. By the time of the Buddha themasses

were speaking languages which were much simpler than Sanskrit.

These were the prakrits. The ordinary speech of Ancient India has

been preserved forus largely throughthe unorthodox religions. Most

inscriptions of pre-Gupta time are in Prakrit. The women and humbler

characters of the Sanskrit drama are made to speak in formalized

prakrit of various dialects. A few of secular literary works were

composed in Prakrit.

Classical Sanksrit increasing became thelanguage of brahmins and the

learned few. Its use was restricted to certainoccasions such as issuing

of proclamations and during the performance of Vedic ceremonies. In

the towns and villages a popular form of Sanksrit, known as Prakrit,

came into the existence. There were a breat number of local

variations. The chief western variety was called Shuraseni and the

eastern variety, Magadhi, Pali was another popular language based on

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Sanksrit. It, too, was used in the same religions as Prakrit. The

Buddha, to reach more people, taught in Magadhi.

Speaking of literature, the four Vedas and the Brahmins and

Upnishadas have some literary qualities. Some hymns of the Rig Veda

and some parts of the early Upnishadas have some merit. Otherwise,

they are mostly dry and monotonous.

In the 1028 hymns of the Rig Veda there is a great variety of styled

and merit. The hymns contain many repetitions and the majority of

them have the sameness of outlook. A number of hymns show

deployment feeling for nature, as for example, the hymns to Ushas. A

few vedic hymns are primarily secular, as for example the Gamester's

Lament.

Very tittle of liverary quality is there in the later Vedic literature the

Atherva veda mostly a monotonous collection contains a few poems of

great merit. The prose Brahmanas, though written in simple and

straight forward language have little literary merit.

Thus the earliest Indian literature is to be found in the Mahabharata

and the Ramayana. The Mahabharata consisting of 90,00 stanzas, is

probably the longest single poem in the world's literature. Ignoring the

interpolations, the style of the Mahabharata is direct and vivid though

consisting of repeated clinches and stock epithets, typical of epic

literature every where. The chief characters are delineated in a very

simple outline but with an individuality which makes them real

persons.

The other epic Ramayana also contains interpolations but they are

much briefer and are mostly didactic. The main body of the poem

gives the impression of being the work of one author whose style was

based on that of the other epic to show some kinship to that of

classical Sanskrit poetry. The style of the Ramayana is less rugged

than that of the Mahabharata. It is a work of greater art and it

contains many dramatic passages and beautiful descriptive writing.

The earliect surviving Sanskrit poetry is that of the Buddhist writer

Ashvaghosa who probably lived in the Ist century A.D. He composed

the Buddha-Charitra in a comparatively simple classical style. The

Girnar inscription of Rudradaman, dated 150 A.D. is the earliest

surviving example of Sanskrit prose.

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The earliest surviving prose stories are a few narrative episodes in the

Brahmanas followed by the pali Jatakas. It was in the Gupta period

that ornate Sanskrit prose was developed. The chief writers in this

style were Dandin, Subandhu and Bana.

Prakrit

Chronologically pali is the first Sanskrit language and various Prakrits

oppeared later. Even the meaning of the word 'Pali' underwent

changes. In the final stages the word "Pali" meant language of the

texts of Theravada Buddhism. The Tripitaka meaning three baskets are

books which consist of the canons of the Theravada sect. One part of it

deals with the monastic discipline. The second part lays down

principles of Buddhism. And the last part deals with various subjects

like ethics psychology theories of knowledge and metaphysical

problems.

Besides the canonical literature, there was also non-canomical

literature in pali. In pali liberature the earlieat works relate to the

Jataka stories. The early poetry consisted of a few verses from the

songs of the older monks and Nuns, a collection of poems ascribed

wrongly to the great disciples of the Buddha in the early days of the

order. The style of these is simpler then Sanskrit literature and

suggests influence of popular song. The book milinda panda is the

most important one. Its subject matter is the dialogue between Milinda

and monk Nagasena over some problems of the Buddhist faith. This

particular kind of canonical literature in pali was practised in Ceylon

also. The classical works Depavamsa and Mahavamsa, the two great

chronicles of Ceylon and also some grammatical metrical and

lexicographical texts were written in pali.

Now for the word "Prakrit". It stands for all the middle Indo-Aryan

speeches which belong to an era between Sanskrit on the one hand

and Aryan languages it has sectarian value since it was exclusively

used as the speech of the Hinayana Buddhism.

From the earliest times to the first century A.D. inscriptions were

composed exclusively in Prakrit. Asoka left behind 30 inscriptions in

Prakrit. Even in literature prakrit came to be used particularly in plays.

And prakrit itself consists of different dialects. There were several

other prakrits of lesser importance. By the time of the Guptas the

prakrits were standardized and had lost their local character. The

vernaculars had already developed beyond them. What panini did for

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Sanskrit others did dor the Prakrits and they began to resemble more

the languages actually were based on the conventions of dramatic

theory and they never represented popular life. Now did they reflect in

any way the linguistic conditions of society. Some plays are composed

exclusively in Prakrit and they are technically called sttakas. The

Karpuramanjari (about 900 A.D.) Rajasekhara depicting love between

man and woman is the most important work of this type.

Continuting the secular aspect of Prakrit language a number of stanzas

were written both on love and maxims. The most remarkable amongst

such texts is the Gatha Saptasati of Hala one of the Satavahana rulers.

This book consists of 700 stanzas about love depicting the varied

phases of South Indian rural life. The king probably ruled in the Ist

century A.D. The poems are notable for their consciseness and for

their great economy of words and masterly use of suggestions. Some

poems contain simple and natural descriptions and references to the

lives of peasants and the lower class. More important is the fact that

narrative literature and epic poems are fairly extensive in Prakrit. The

most noteworthy among themare the Brihatkatha of Gunadhya

composed in Paisachi dialect and Setubandha of Pravarasena.

Apart from secular literature prakrit was used for religious literature

also like the Jaina canonical works. It was during the 5th century A.D.

that most of the Jaina canons were written down. In prakrit literature

the Jaina writings have very little literary the poetry of the Jainas is

better than prose. Its poetry is written in lively vernacular style.

Furthermore it is to be stated here that scholars treated Apabhramas

as a kind of Prakrit. It boasts of extensive literature particularly

narrative stories. The first writer to make use of it was Asvaghosa. The

others who followed the example were Bhasa (3rd century A.D.) and

later Visakhadatta and kalidasa.

In the Apabhramsa the meter doha was adopted as powerful form of

expression of religious and philosophical thoughts. Both Jaina monks

and contemporary writers of Tantrik Bhddhism utilized this meter.

Incidentally stray poems dealing with morals maxims ethics religious

discourses and legenos were commonly written in Apabhramsa. Among

the Jains the columinous texts on the life and activities of Jaina heroes

were written in Apabhramsa. It may be noted here in the end that

Apabhramsa, Sanskrit and Prakrit had a great influence both on

Gujarati and Hindi as late as the 16th century.

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Futhermore Prakrit is of linguistic importance since it is illustrative of

the linguistic evolution from Prakrit to Apabhramsa and finally to a new

regional language. Apabhramsa meaning falling down was a corrupt

form of Prakrit dialect. It is believed to have originated in the northwest

and traveled from that region along with the migrant people who

scattered and settled incentral and western India after the Huna

invasions. The Prakrit as used by Jains was greatly influenced by

Apabhramsa. It is here that the link between the older and the new

languages of Maharashtri and Gujarati is evident.

India's Impact on Southeast Asia

Causes and Consequences

The transmission of Indian culture of distant parts of Central Asia,

China, Japan, and especially Southeast Asia is certainly one of the

greatest achievements of Indian history or even of the history of

mankind. None of the other great civilizations - not even the Hellenic -

had been able to achieve a similar success without military conquest.

In this brief survey of India's history, there is no room for an adequate

discussion of the development of the 'Indianised' states of Southeast

Asia which can boast of such magnificent temple cities as Pagan

(Burma; constructed from 1044 to 1287 AD,) Angkor (Combodia;

constructed from 889 to c. 1300 AD), and the Borobudur (Java, early

ninth century AD). Though they were influenced by Indian culture,

they are nevertheless part and parcel of the history of those respective

countries. Here we will limit our observations to some fundamental

problems oncerning the transmission of Indian culture to the vast

region of Sotheast Asia.

Who Spread Indian Culture in Southeast Asia ?

Historians have formulated several theories regarding the transmission

of Indian culture of Southeast Asia :

(1) the 'Kshatriya' theory;

(2) the 'Vaishya' theory;

(3) the 'Brahmin' theory.

The Kshatriya theory states that Indian warriors colonized Southeast

Asia; this proposition has now been rejected by most scholars

although it was very prominent some time ago.

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The Vaishya theory attributes the spread of Indian cultura to traders;

it is certainly much more plausible than the Kshatriya theory, but does

not seem to explain the large number of Sanskrit loan words in

Southeast Asian languages.

The Brahmin hypothesis credits Brahmins with the transmission of

Indian culture; this would account for the prevalence of these

loanawards; but may have to be amplified by some reference to the

Buddhists as well as to be amplified by some reference to the

Buddhsits as well as to the traders. We shall return to these theories,

but first we shall try to understand the rise and fall of the Kshatriya

theory.

It owed its origin to the Indian freedom movement. Indian historians,

smarting under the stigma of their own colonical sujection, tried to

compensate for this by showing that al leat in ancient times Indians

had been strong enough to establish colonise of their own. In 1926 the

Greater India society was established in Calcutta and in subsequent

years the renewed Indian historia R.C. Majumdar published his series

of studies, Ancient Indian colonise in the Far East. This school held

that Indian kings and warriors had established such colonise and the

Sanksrit names of South east Asian rulers seemed to provide ample

supporting evidence. At least this hypothesis stimulated further

research, though it also alienated those intellectuals of Southeast Asia

who rejected the idea of having once been colonized by a 'Greater

India'. As research progressed it was found that there was vary little

proof of any direct Indian political influence in those states of

Southeast Asia. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that Southeast

Asian rulers had adopted Sanskrit names the mselves - thus such

names could not be adduced as evidence for the presence of Indian

kings.

The Vaishya theory, in contrast, emphasized a much more important

element of the Indian connection with Southeast Asia. Trade had

indeed been the driving force behind all these early contacts.

Inscriptions also showed that guids of Indian merchants had

established outposts in many parts of Southeast Asia. Some of their

inscriptions were written in languages such as Tamil. However, if such

merchants had been the chief agents of the transmission of Indian

culture, then all their languages should have made an impact on those

of Southeast Asia. But this was not so : Sanskrit and, to some extent,

languages. The traders certainly provided an important transmission

belt for all kinds of cultural influences. Nevertheless, they did not play

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the crucial role which some scholars have attributed to them. One of

the most important arguments against the Vaishya theory is that some

of the earliest traces of Indianised states in Southeast Asia are not

found in the coastalareas usually frequented by the traders, but in

mountainous, interior areas.

The Brahmin theory is in keeping with what we have shown with

regard to the almost contemporary spread of Hindu culture in

Southern and Central India. There Brahmins and Buddhist and Jain

monks played the major role in transmitting cultural values and

symbols, and in disseminating the style of Hundu kingship. In addition

to being religious specialists, the Brahmins also knew the Sanskrit

codes regarding law (dharmasastra), the art of government

(arthasastra), and art and architecture (silpasastra). They could taus

serve as development planners' in many different fields and were

accordingly welcome to Southeast Asian rulers who may have just

emerged from what we earlier described as first-and second phase

state formation.