ancient places name

INDEX : ANCIENT PLACE NAMES



AND HISTORIC SITES

Bamiyan Kapsa Pushkalavati

Purushpura (Peshawar) Massage Sahabazgarhi

Manshere Taxila Burzahom

Srinagar Sakala Mehrgarh

Marappa (Hariyupa?) Yaudheya Jalandhara

Rupar Kalibangan Banavali

Thanesvara Kalsi Topra

Kurukshetra Alamgirpur Hastinapur

Indraprastha Ahicchatra Mathura

Kampilya Kanyakubja Sravasti

Niglava Ayodhya Rummindei

Kapilvastu Pavapuri Kusinagar

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Rampurva Lauriya-Nandangarh Lauriya - Araraj

Vaisali Chirand Pataliputara

Purnia Barbar and GorthagiriGaya

Rajagriha Nalanda Champa

Devaka Navadvipa Tamralipti

Kandhar Mohenjodro Kot Diji

Amri Chanho-daro Barbaricum

Pushkar (Ajmer) Sakambhari Nindowari (near 53)

Bairat (Bhabra) Jaipur Padmavati

Deogarh Bharhut Kausambi

Prayaga Sarnath Kasi

Arbuda Madhyamika Daspura

Eran Ujjayani Besnagar

Sanchi Vidisa Rupanath

Tripuri Surkotada Evarka

Lothal Rangapur Girhar (Girinagar or Junagarh)

Valabhi Somnath Bharukacche (Broach, Barygaza)

Bagh Mahismati Harda

Bhagtrav Surat Anupad

Ajanta Ellora Devagiri

Pratisthana (Paithan) Nasik Aparanta

Kanheri Surparaka (Sopara) Elechanta

Karle Bhaja Vatagulma

Maha Kosal Mahakantar Sisupalgarh

Dhauli (Tosali) Puri-Hathigumpha Jauguda

Gangam Kottura Mahendragiri

Devaragiri Devarasthra Visakhapatnam

Pishtapura Kalyana Manyakheta

Vengi Kaurala Ghantasala

Amravati Vatapi Aihole

Maski Yarragudi Vanavasi (Banavasi or Vaijayanti)

Brahmagiri Pallaka Dwarsmudra

Belur Sravana Belgola Kanchi

Uttarmerur Mamlalpuram Sopatma

Arikamdeu Chidambaram Puhar (Kaveripatnam)

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Gangaikonda -Choleapuram Nagapattanam Naura

Tyndis Kongu Uraiyar

Srirangam Tiruchirapali Tanjor (Tanjavur)

Madurai Muziris Nelcynda

Balita Korkai Kanyakumari

Tondi Anurudhapur Sriengri (near 133)

Kajangala (near 43) Pattakakal (near 125) Iskkeri (near 132)

ADDITIONAL NOTE

The post-Mauryan era is known for meaningdul contacts between

central Asia and India. North-western India came under the rule of a

number of dynasties hailing from Central Asia.

The first were the Indo-Greeks who earlier ruled over Bactria situated

to the South of Oxus river in the area covered by north of Afghanistan.

(For details see Indo-Greeks.)

The Indo-Greeks were followed by the Sakas. One of their branches

settled in India with Taxila as their capital. Another branch ruled over

western India. The latter came into conflict with the Satavahanas.

There is nothing conspicuous regarding this contact. The only famous

ruler was Rudradaman (130 to 150 A.D.) who undertook repairs to

improve Sudarshana lake in Kathiawar, this lake was used for a very

long time. Also, he was a patron of Sanskrit. It was the who first

issued a long inscription in chaste Sanskrit.

After the Sakas, the Central Asians who influenced India were the

Kushans. They originally came from the steppes of north Central Asia

and lived in the neighbourhood of China. (Refer to the topic on the

Kushans for further details).

In general the central Asia contactsled to certain developments.

Building activity was very brisk. Burnt brick was used for flooring and

tiles were used forboth flooring and roofing. Also, brick wells wre

constructed. The typical pottery of the Saka-Kushan period was the

red ware, both plain and polished. Some pots have spouted channels.

Such like objects have been found in Soviet Central Asia also.

More important is the fact that the Sakas and the Kushans settled in

India for good. They adopted the scripts, languages and religious of

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 53 of 56

India. Thus they became integral parts of Indian society and this

fusion of the Sakas and the Kushans with Indian society left its own

imprint. They introduced better cavalry and use of riding hourses on a

large scale. Use of reins and Saddles became common as shown in the

Buddhist sculptures of the second and the third centuries A.D.

Numerous equestian terracotta figures of the Kushan period have been

found. Horsemen were heavily armed and fought with spears and

lances. More important are the changes introduced by them in the

ordinary pattern of life - turbans, tunics, truousers and heavy long

coat. The first one is worn by the Afghans and Punjabis till today and

probably the Sherwani of today is the successor of the long coat.

The close contacts between Central Asia and India also led to the

import of gold from the Altai mountains in Central Asia. Also, as the

Kushans controlled the silk Route they derived large revenues. This

made the Kushans issue gold coins for the first time on a wide scale in

India.

Furthermore, the rule of central Asian conquerors strengthened the

feudal tendencies of society. The very fact that the Kushans called

themselves 'King of kings' shows that they exercised suzerainty over

small princes. Along with this new dimension in polity, the Sakas and

Kushans introduced the concept of Divieright of kingship. The Kushan

kings called themselves sons of god. Possibly this has made manu

state that the king should be obeyed because he is a great god ruling

in the form of human beings.

In matters relating to society, the Greeks, the Sakas, the parthians

and the Kushans came to be absorbed as the Kshatriya community.

These were known as the falled kshatriyas.

In matters of religion, a good number of foreign rulers believed in

Vaishanavism. The greek ambassador Heliodorus got a pillar

constructed in honour of Vishnu near Vidisa in Madhya Pradesh. A few

took to Buddhism like the Greek ruler. Menander. The exchange of

views between the Buddhist teacher Nagasena of nagarjuna and

Menander constitutes a good source for the cultural history of this

period. Finaly, some Kushan rulers took to worship of Shiva and the

Buddha.

These contects with foreigners led to some changes in Indian religions.

The old form of Buddhism was too puritanical and too abstract for

foreigners. They were in no position to apprecie the philosophy of

Buddhism as emphasized by the existing Buddhist schools. To satisfy

Be great in act, as you have been in thought. Page 54 of 56

these foreigners, the Mahayana or the Great Vehicle came into

existence in which the Buddha is worshipped in the form of images.

Those who followed the older version of Buddhism or lesser Vehicle

were known as Hinayanists. Kanishaka was a great patron of

Mahayana. He convened a council in Kashmir and he had set up many

stupas in memory of the Buddha.

Also, these foreign rulers became patrons of Indian ort and literature.

Masons and artisans trained in different schools of thought were

employed by the Kushans particularly in north-western India Indian

artisans came into contact with their Greek and roman counterparts.

Such was the beginning of the Gandhara art in which images of the

Buddha were made in Graeco-Roman style. This from of art gradually

spread to Mathura is borne out by the famous headless statue of

Kanishaka. This particular school of art was also instrumental for a

good number of stone images of Mahavir.

It was this impetus that activated the artistic impulse of India. In

several places south of the Vindhyas beautiful Buddhist caves were

carved out of rocks, the famous ones in Maharashtra. In Andhra

Pradesh, nagarjunkunda and Amravati were the centers of Buddhist

art. The stories related to the Buddha have been portrayed in

numerous panels.

The foreign rulers were also instrumental for providing a stimulus to

literature and learning. The inscription of Rudradaman in Kathawar

reveals the Kavya style in Sanskrit. More and more inscriptions came

to be composed in chaste Sanskrit. It is also held that Asvaghosa was

probably patronized by the Kushans. He wrote Buddha Charita, a

biography of the Buddha. He also wrote Saundarananda which is a fine

example of Sanskrit Kavya. In matters relating to theeatre also, the

contact with central Asian rulers led to some changes. The feature of

curtain in dramatic performances was borrowed from the Greeks.

Finally, in the field of science and technology contacts with central

Asian foreigners led to certain developments. The presence of a great

number of Greek terms in Sanskrit shows that Indian astronomy and

astrology benefited from their contact with the Greeks. It is said that

the term Horasastra' meaning astrology in Sanskrit was adapted from

the Greek term horoscope. In technology, Indian gained from its

contacts with the Central Asians. Kanishaka is represented as wearing

trousers and long boots. It is conjectured that the practice of making

leather shoes began in this period. Also, the copper and gold coins of

the Kushans were imitations of the Roman coins. There was exchange

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of embassises between India and the Roman experors. These contactw

might have led to new practices in technology. For certain, working in

glass during this period was influenced by foreign ideas and practices.

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GENERAL PREVIEW OF SCIENCE &

TECHNOLOGY AND LEARNING &

EDUCATION

SCINECE & TECHNOLOGY

Knowledge of science and technology, however, got linked with

religionand social relations. Relying primarily on pragmatism some

intellectuals in India acquired intuitive awarness of scientific temper.

In view of absence of experiment, some insights became ridiculous.

Knowledge of science was known from very ancient times, although

science, as we know today, was not known in India till modern times.

The archaeological remains of the Indus Valley reveal knowledge of

applied sciences. Scientific techniques were used in irrigation,

Metallurgy, making of fired bricks and pottery, and simple recknowing

and measurement of areas and volumes.

It contrast more is know about Aryan achievements in the field of

astronomy, mathamatcis and medicine. Chinese records indicate

knowledge of a dozen books of Indian origin. Brahmagupta's Sidhanta

as well as Charaka's and Susrata's Samhitas were translated int Arabic

in the 9th or 10th centuries A.D.

In ancient Indian mathematics was known by the general name of

ganita, which included arthimatcs, geometry, algebra, astronomy and

astrology. It was Aryabhata, who gave a new direction to

trigonometry. The decimal system too was an innovation of India.

By the third century B.C. mathematics, astronomy and medicine began

to develop separately. In the fielf of mathematics ancient Indians

made three distinct contributions, the notation system, the decimal

system and the use of zero. The earliest epigraphic evidence of the

use of decimal system belongs to the fifth century A.D. Before these

numerals appeared in the West they had been used in India for

centuries. They are found in the inscriptions of Ashoka in the third

century B.C.

Indians were the first to use the decimal system. The famous

mathematics Aryabhata. (A.D. 476-500) was acquinated with it. The

Chinese learnt this system from the Buddhist missionaries, and the

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western world borrowed it from the Arabas when they came incontact

with India. Zero was discovered by Indians inabout the second century

B.C. From the very beginning Indian mathematicians considered zero

as a separate numeral, and it was used in this sense in arithmatics. In

Arabia the earliest use of zero appears in A.D. 873. The Arabs learnt

and adopted it from India and spread it in Europe. So far as Algebra is

concerned both Indians and Greeks contributed to it, but in Western

Europe its knowledge was borrowed not from Greece but from the

Arabs who had acquired it from India.

In the second century B.C. Apastemba contributed to practical

geometry for the construction of altars on which the kings could offer

sacrifices. It describes acute angle, obtuse angle, right angle etc.

Aryabhata formulated the rule for finding the area of a trinangle, which

led to the origin of trigonometry. The most famous work of his time is

the Suryasiddanta the like of which was not found in Contemporary

ancient east.

During the Gupta period mathematics was developed to such an extent

and more advanced than any other nation of antiquity. Quite early

India devised a rudimentary algebra which led to more calculations

than were possible for the Greeks and led to the study of number for

its own sake. The earliest inscription regarding the data by a system of

nine digits and a zero is dated as 595 A.D. Evidently the system was

known tomathematicians some centuries before it was employed in

inscriptions. Indian mathematicians such as Brahmagupta (7th

century), Mahavira (9th century) and Bhaskara (12th century) made

several discoveries which were known to Europe only after

Renaissance. The understood the importance of positive and negative

quantities, evolved sound system of estracting squares and cube roots

and could solve quadratic and certaint types of indeterminate

equations. Aryabhata gave approximate value of pie. It was more

accurate than that of the Greeks. Also some strides were made in

trigonometry, ephrical geometry and calculus. Chiefly in astronomy the

mathematical implications of zero and infnity were fully realized unlike

anywhere in the world.

Amont the various branches of mathematics, Hindus gave astronomy

the highest place of honour. Suryasidhanta is the best know book on

Hindu astronomy. The text was later modeified two or three times

between 500 A.D. and 1500 A.D. The system laid down in the book

can even now be used to predict eclipse within an error of two or three

hours.

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The most renowed scholars of astronomy were Aryabhata and

Varhamihira. Aryabhata belonged to the fifth century, and

Varahamihira to the sixth. Aryabhata calculated the position of the

planets according to the Babylonian method. He discovered the cause

of lunar and solar eclipses. The circumstances of the earth which he

measured on the basis of the speculation is considered to be correct

even now. He pointed out that the sun is stationary and the earth

rotates around it. The book of Aryabhata is the Aryabhatiya.

Varhimihira's well-known work is called Brihatsamhita which belongs to

the sixth century A.D. Varhaihira stated that the moon rotates around

the earth and the earth rotates around the earth rotates around the

sun. He utilized several Greek works to explain the movement of the

plantes and some other astronomical problems. Although Greek

knowledge influenced Indian astronomy, there is no doubt that Indian

pursued the subject further and made use of it in their ovservations of

the planets.

Aryabhata wrote a book when he was barely 23 years. Varhmihira of

the sixth century wrote a summary of five asronomical books current

wrote a summary of five astronomical books current in his time.

Brahamagupta of the seventh century A.D. appreciated the value of

observation and astronomy and his book was translated into Arabic.

One last great scientist was Bhaskara II. One of the chapters in the

book Sidhanta Shiromani, dealing with mathematics, is the well-known

work of Lilavait.

Nevertheless, Indian viws on the origina and evolution of the universe

was matter of religion rather than of science. The cosmic schemes of

Hindus and Jains in fundamentals were the same. All postulated a flat

earth although Indian astronomers came to know that this was

incorrect early in the Christian era. The idea of flat such remained for

religious pruposes.

Regarding astronomy proper it was studied as a Vedanta. Its name

was Jyotisa. A rimitive kind of astronomy was developed mainly for the

purpose of settling the dates and times at which periodical sacrifices

were to be performed. Serverall Greek words gained momentum in

sankrit through knowledge of Greek astronomy. The sixth century

astronomer Varahamihira called one of his five astronomical systems

as Romaka Sidhanta. It is only western astronomy that introduced in

Indian the sign of the Zodaic. The seven-day week, the hour, and

several other ideas. Later, Indian astronomers made some advances

on the knowledge of the Greeks and passed on their knowledge with

that of mathematics via the Arabs to Europe. As early as seventh

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century, a Syrian astronomer knew of the greatness of Indian

astronomy and mathematics.

In the field of medicine, Aurveda was the contribution of India. Seven

hundred hymns in the Vedas, particularly Atharva Veda, refer to topics

of Ayurveda. Indeed, the whole approach was not scientific. He earliest

mention of medicines is in the Atharva Veda. As in order ancient

societies, the remedies recommended in it the are replete with magical

charms and spells. Medicine could not develop along scientific lines. In

post-Maurya time India witnessed two famous scholars of the Aurveda,

Susrtua and Charaka. In the Susrutasmhita Susruta describes methods

of operating contract, stone disease and several other ailments. He

mentions as many as 121 implements to be used for operations. For

the treatment of disease he lays special emphasis on diet. And

cleanliness. Charaka wrote the Charakasamhita in the second century

A.D. It is like encylopedia of Indian medicines. It describes various

types of fever. Leprosy, hysteria and tuberculosis. Possibly Charaka

did not know that some of these are infections. His book contains the

names of a large number of plants and herbs which were to be used as

medicine. The book is thus useful not only for study of ancient Indian

medicine but also for ancient Indian flora and chemistry. In

subsequent centuries Indian medincines developed on the lines laid

down by Charaka. The Vedic hymns attribute various diseases to

demons and spirits and the remedies for hymns prescribing correctly

the symptoms of pulmonary tuberculosis, and connecting dropsy with

heart diseases.

However, national medicine began to 800 B.C. Medicine became a

regular subject of study at centers like Taxila and Varanasi. The latter

specialized in surgery. Susrutasmhita was compiled in the fourth

century A.D. Charaka compiled the teachings of two of his predecssors

who served at Taxila. Charaka and Susruta's Samhits reached as far as

Manhcuria through translations in Tibetan and other Asian languages.

In the eighth century A.D. these books influenced European medicine

as carried over by two Arabs. Charaka Samhita was published as late

as 1550 in Arabic. Despite these achievements, medicine did not make

any remarkable strides, for absence of dissection led to ignorance of

anatomy and physiology. Indians were equally ……………….. of the

functions of internal organs such as lungs and brain.

Surgery of some kind was even during the Vedic period. It was only

from the time of Susruta that surgery came to occupy an important

place in medicine. Surgical operations were performed like taking the

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foetus out of the womb. Including caesarin, section, treatment of

fistula removal of stone from bloder and plastic surgery for the nose.

Despite the developments as the above in medicine, ancient Indian

doctors, ingeneral had no knowledge of the functions of brain,

although they knew the importance of the spinal cord and the

existence of nervous system. Once again social taboos stood in the

way of the growth of medical knowledge. It was a tabo to too touch

dead bodies.

Despite the fact that the physicological knowledge of ancient Indians

was very poor, Indians evolved empirical surgery. They knew bonesetting,

plastic surgery and surgeons in ancient India were experts is

repairing noses, ears and lips lost, or injured by mutilation.

The physician was a respectable member of society as the Vaidyas

were ranked higher in the hierarchy. Even to this day the rules of

professional behaviour laid down in medical tests are almost the same

as those of Hippocrates. Of course, some statements at one place

states that the Physcians should not betray the patients and shouldbe

always of pleasant speech. In this context, he pleads that every day

they must pray on rising and going to bed, since the work of the

welfare of the all beings specially cows.

Regarding physics, it was closely linked with religion and theology and

it even differed from sect to sect. Almost all religions believed that the

universe consisted of elements like earth, air, water, and akasa

(ether). Most schools maintained that there were as many types of

atoms as there were elements. Some Buddhists conceived atom as the

minutes object capable of occupying space but also as occupying the

minutest possible duration of time coming into being and vanishing

almost in an instant only to be succeeded by another atom caused by

the first. This somewhat resembles the quantum theory of planck. The

Vaisesika school believed a single atom to be a point in space

completely without magnitude. Fruther, most of the schools believed

that atoms constitute moleculues. However, the Indian atomic theories

were not based on experiment but intuitive logic. The great theolgian

Sankara strongly argued against their existence.

Beyond this knowledge of atoms, physics in India did not develop

much. However, in the science of acustics, India made real discovers.

Based on experience for this correct recitation on Vedas, the human

era was highly trained for the phonetic study - distinguished musical

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tones far closer than those of other ancient musical systems much

earlier than other civilization.

Regarding chemistry and metallurgy too, some progress was made in

ancient times. The Harappans developed metallurgy of copper and

bronze about 2500 B.C. The Vedic Aryans tanned leather, fermented

grains and fruits, and dyed scale production of copper, iron and steel,

brass, silver and gold and their alloys. Indian steel was highly

esteemed in the ancient world and it was exported in large quantities.

Tin and mercury were imported and worked. And from the senventh

century, alchemy was referred to in literature. The medical chemistry

of ancient India did succeed in producing many important alkalies,

acids and metallic salts. It is claimed by Bashama that ancient Indians

ever discovered a form of gun powder. The coming of middle ages,

Indian chemists, like their counterparts in the rest of the world,

became increasingly interested in a specific remedy for all diseases,

the source of perpetual youth, and even the surest means to salvation.

Although the could not make precious metals, they could understand

the chemistry of metallic sats. The heights attained by Indians in

metallurgy and engineering are brone out by the almost pure copper

stature of Buddha found at Sultanganj and the famous iorn Pillar at

Mehrauli (Delhi which has been able to withstand rain and weather for

centuries without rusting).

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FOREIGN RELATIONS OF ASOKA

Diplomacy and geographical proximity primarily determined the

foreign relations maintained by Asoka. Particularly, the century in

which, Asoka lived was one of continued interactions between the

Eastern Mediterranean and South Asia. That is why most of Asoka's

contacts were with South Asia and the West. It appears that this

interest was not one sided. A fair number of foreigners lived in

Pataliputra to necessitate a special committee under the municipal

management to look after the needs of welfare of the visitors. Apart

from these major factors determining the foreign relations of Asoka,

one more parameter was the desire of Asoka to spread his policy of

dhamma to distant lands.

To begin with, Asoka in his foreign relations was a realist defeat and

annexation of Kalinga. Also his realism is to be seen in Asoka not

annexing the southern kingdoms (Cholas, Pandvas, Satyaputras and

Keralaputras) while being satisfied with theirac knowledgement of his

suzerainty. He probably felt that it was not worth the trouble to annex

the small territories too.

In other foreign relations Asoka reveals as an idealist or a monarch

who wore the robes of a monk. He sent various missions, though not

embassies, to various countries. Their main purpose was to acquaint

the countries they visited with his policies, particularly that of

dhamma. They may be compared to modern goodwill missions helping

to create an interest in the ideas and peoples of the country from

which they came. Also, the fact that they are quite unheard of in

contemporary literature or in later sources would suggest that they

made only a short-lived impression.

In spite of the above reservations, the missions must have opened a

number of channels for the flow of Indian ideas and goods. It is

unlikely that Asoka expected all the kings who had received missions

to put the policy of dhamma into practice, although he claims that his

did happen. It is curious to observe that there is no reference to these

missions in the last important public declaration of Asoka, the seventh

pillar edict. In this edict Asoka mentions the success he had with his

welfare services and the widespread propagation of dhamma but all

within the empire.

The territory immediately adjoining the empire of Asoka on the West

and that Antiochus. There is ample evidence of contacts of similarity in

cultures. The use of Kharoshti in the Shahbazgarhi and Mansehra

Wherever you go, go with all your heart. 1/26

edicts in the north is evidence of strong contact with Iran. The

fragmentary Aramaic inscription at Taxila and another of the same

kind from Kashmir point to continue inter communication between the

two areas.

Apart from contacts with Iran, Asoka Empire was close to various

Greek kingdoms. There are references to the Greeks in the rock edicts

of Asoka. On certain occasions the word used refers to the Greek

settlements in the north-west and on others to the Hellenic Kingdoms.

Antiochus II these of Syria is more frequently mentioned. He other

Hellenic Kings where missions were sent were Ptolemy-II Philadephus

of Egypt, Magas of Cyrene, Antigonus gonatas of Messedonia, and

Alexander of Eorius.

Apart from these western contacts, tradition maintains that Asoka

visited Khotan. This cannot be substantiated. On the other hand,

Asoka maintained close relations with modern Nepal. Tradition states

that his daughter, Charumati was married to Devapala of Nepal.

On the East, the Mauryan empire included the provice of Vanga, Since

Tamralipti was the principal port of the area, Indian missions to and

from Ceylon are said to have traveled via Tamaralipti.

The extent of the influence of Asoka's power in South India is better

documented than in north India. The edicts of Asoka are found at

Gavimathi, Palkignuda, Brahmagiri, Maski, yerragudi and Siddapur,

Tamil poets also make references to the Mauryas.

More Important were the contacts with Ceylon. Information is available

in the Ceylonese Chronicles on contacts between India and Ceylon.

Coming of Mahindra to Ceylon was not the first official contact. Earlier,

Dhamma missions were sent. A Ceylonese king was so captivated by

Asoka that the top called himself as Devanampiya. Asoka maintained

close relations with Tissa, the ruler of Ceylon. Relationship between

Asoka and Tissa was based on mutual admiration for each other.

What interests of the country or the aims of Asoka were served

through his missions? Asoka primarily tried to propagate his dhamma

and may be incidentally Buddhims. He claimed that he made a spiritual

conquest of all the territories specified by him as well as a few more

territories beyond them. This claim definitely appears to bean

exaggeration. There is no historical evidence to show that Asoka

missions did succeed in achieving their aim particularly when the

dhamma happened to be highly humanistic and ethical in nature. After

Wherever you go, go with all your heart. 2/26

all, Asoka was neither a Buddha nor a Christ to appeal to various

people. Neither a St. Peter nor an Ananda to successful spread the

message of their Masters. Not did he possess fighting men to spread

his message just as the followers of prophet Mohammed. Thus, when

there is no follow up action after the missions visited the various parts

of the world, it is understandable that no one paid any heed to his

message.

Evertheless, there is one intriguing point about the success of his

foreign missions. In likelihood, the history of the Buddha and his

message must have spread to the various parts. What did they need

to? Although it is difficult to answer this question, it is of importance to

observe that there are certain similarities between Christianity and

Buddhism - suffering of man, Mara & Satan, Sangha Monasteries with

Bikshus and Monks, and the use of rosary by Buddhist and Christian's

monks.